UBRART 


SYLLABUS 


A  COURSE   OF   LECTURES 


ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY 


JOHN    C.  BRANNER,  PH.D., 

Professor  of  Geology 
AND 

JOHN   F.  NEWSOM,  A.M., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy 
IN   LELAND   STANFORD  JUNIOR   UNIVERSITY 


Second  Edition 


STANFORD    UNIVERSITY 
I9OO 


STANFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


PREFACE. 

This  syllabus  is  intended  for  the  use  of  students  both  while  in  college 
and  afterwards.  The  outlines  given  can  be  expanded  by  notes  taken  from 
the  lectures,  from  reading,  and  from  observation,  and  written  out  on  the 
opposite  pages  left  blank  for  that  purpose. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  a  student  of  economic  geology  needs 
to  learn  is  where  to  find  and  how  to  use  information  that  has  been  pub- 
lished. We  have  therefore  endeavored  to  give  references:  first,  to  the 
works  on  the  general  subject  of  economic  geology ;  second,  to  periodicals 
in  which  articles  are  to  be  looked  for  upon  various  economic  subjects ; 
third,  to  papers  and  reports  upon  special  subjects. 

The  general  works  and  periodicals  are  listed  on  pages  iv  and  vi,  and  the 
references  to  special  topics  are  given  as  foot-notes  in  the  body  of  the  sylla- 
bus under  each  topic.  The  list  of  references  is  not  complete  in  any  case, 
but  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  put  the  student  in  the  way  of  finding  other 
titles. 

By  posting  titles  in  the  syllabus  as  the  articles  appear  the  student  can 
add  greatly  to  its  usefulness,  and  in  this  way  keep  his  own  copy  up  to  date. 

More  space  is  given  to  the  economic  geology  of  the  United  States  than 
to  that  of  foreign  countries.  Some  of  the  substances  are  necessarily  but 
briefly  treated. 

For  the  sake  of  uniformity  the  tons  mentioned  in  this  syllabus  have 
all  been  reduced  to  short  tons  of  2,000  pounds. 

The  compositions  of  minerals,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  the  theo- 
retic ones,  and  are  taken  from  Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy. 

The  charts  showing  the  production,  imports,  and  prices  were  made 
chiefly  from  the  data  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  Space  has 
been  left  on  the  right  side  of  these  diagrams  so  that  the  lines  can  be  con- 
tinued for  several  years. 

A  few  blank  pages  are  left  at  the  back  of  the  book  for  the  addition  of 
notes  and  memoranda  on  special  subjects  not  treated  in  the  syllabus. 

Inasmuch  as  most  institutions  in  which  economic  geology  is  taught 
have  courses  of  lectures  upon  mining  law,  the  notes  on  that  subject,  given 
in  the  first  edition  of  the  syllabus,  are  left  out  of  the  present  one.  On 
page  346,  however,  a  few  references  are  given  to  important  works  on  min- 
ing law. 

The  authors  are  under  special  obligations  to  D.  M.  Barringer  of  Phil- 
adelphia for  the  use  of  the  cuts  illustrating  the  geological  introduction  to 
his  "Law  of  Mines  and  Mining." 


GENERAL  WORKS  ON  ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY. 

Books  and  articles  upon  special  subjects  are  mentioned  under  each  topic. 

THE  METALLIC  WEALTH  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  By  J.  D.  Whitney.  Phil- 
adelphia, 1854;  510  pages.  Scarce. 

A  TREATISE  ON  ORE  DEPOSITS.  By  B.  von  Cotta ;  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  F.  Prime,  Jr.  New  York,  1870;  575  pages.  Scarce. 

ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY.     By  David  Page.     London,  1874;  336  pages. 

POPULAR  FALLACIES  REGARDING  PRECIOUS  METAL  ORE  DEPOSITS.  Ry  Albert 
Williams,  Tr.  Fourth  ann.  rep.  U.  e.  Geol.  Survey,  257-271.  Wash- 
ington, 1884. 

APPLIED  GEOLOGY.     By  S.  G.  Willip.ms.     New  York,  1886;  386  pages. 

A    TREATISE    ON    METALLIFEROUS    MINERALS    AND    MINING.       By    D.    C.     DavieS. 

Fifth  edition,  London,  1892;  548  pages. 

A  TREATISE    ON  3ARTF.Y  j    :3  OTHER      lINERALS  AND  MINING.       By  D.  C.  DavieS. 

Second  edition,     'uondon,  Io88;  336  pages. 

TRAIT^  DBS  GIT^S  MINERAUX  KT  METALLIFERES.  Par  Ed.  Fuchs  et  L.  de 
Lau-'oy.  2  vols.  Paris,  1893,  (Contains  many  valuable  references.) 

ETUDE  INDUSTRIELLE  DE^  GITES  METALLIFERES.  Par  George  Moreau.  Paris, 
1894;  453  pages. 

ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  By  R.  S.  Tarr.  New  York, 
1894;  509  pages. 

THE  ORE  DEPOSITS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  By  J.  F.  Kemp.  New  York, 
1893;  second  edition,  1895;  343  pages;  third  edition,  1900,  484  pages. 

THK  GENESIS  OF  ORE  DEPOSITS.  Bv  F.  Posepny.  Transactions  of  the  Amer- 
ican Institute  ( f  Mining  Engineers,  1893,  XXIII,  197-369;  also  a 
separate  publication  of  tl^  Institute.  New  York,  1895. 

A  TREATISE  ON  ORE  DEPOSITS.  By  J.  A.  Phillips.  London,  1884;  651  pages. 
Second  edition  rewritten,  etc.  By  Henry  Louis.  London,  1896; 
943  pages. 

Mineral   Statistics. 

THE  MINERAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Published  annually  from 
1883  to  1893  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Since  1893  these  re- 
ports are  included  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Director  of  the  Sur- 
vey. 

THE  MINERAL  INDUSTRY.  Editt:!  by  R.  P.  Rothwell.  Published  annually 
since  1893.  Prior  to  1893  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  pub- 
lished annually  statistics  of  the  mineral  industries  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Director  of  tne  Mint,  publishes  an  annual  report  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  the  precious  metals  in  the  United  States. 
The  census  reports. 


PERIODICAL  PUBLICATIONS. 

1.  ANNALES  DBS  MINES.    Published  at  Paris  since  1794. 

2.  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  SCIENCE.    Published  monthly  at  New  Haven, 

Conn.,  since  1819. 

3.  BULLETIN  DE  LA  SOCIETE  GEOLOOJIQUE  DE  FRANCE.    Paris,  France;  one 

volume  annually  since  1830. 

4.  NEUES  JAHRBUCH   FUR    MINERALOGIE,    GEOLOGIE  UND  PALAEONTOLOGIE. 

Stuttgart,  annually  since  1830. 

5.  BERG-  UND  HUTTENMANNISCHE  ZEITUNG.    Leipzig  since  1842. 

6.  QUARTERLY  JOURNAL  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.    One  volume 

annually  since  1845. 

7.  GEOLOGICAL  MAGAZINE.    Begun  in   1858  as  THE  GEOLOGIST;  continued 

since  1865  as  THE  GEOLOGICAL  MAGAZINE.    Published  monthly  at  Lon- 
don, England. 

8.  ENGINEERING  AND   MINING  JOURNAL.     Published  weekly  at  New  York 

since  1866. 

9.  TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS.    New 

York ;  one  volume  annually  since  1870. 

10.  SCHOOL  OF  MINES  QUARTERLY.    Published  quarterly  at  New  York  since 

1879. 

11.  TECHNOLOGY  QUARTERLY.     Published  quarterly  by  the  Massachusetts 

Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  since  1887. 

12.  AMERICAN  GEOLOGIST.     Published  monthly  at  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  since 

1888. 

13.  BULLETIN  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA.     One  volume  an- 

nually since  1890. 

14.  JOURNAL  OF  GEOLOGY.     Published  semi-quarterly  at  the  University  of 

Chicago  since  1893. 

15.  ZEITSCHRIFT  FUR  PRAKTISCHE  GEOLOGIE.     Berlin,  Germany,  since  1893. 

16.  ANNALES  DBS  MINES  DE  BELGIQUE.     Brussels,  since  f896. 

17.  Monographs,  bulletins,  and  annual  reports  of  the  United  States  Geo- 

logical Survey,  Washington,  since  1880. 


SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  COLUMN,  OK  ORDER  OF  THE  STRATIFIED 
FORMATIONS. 


CHARACTERISTIC    LIFE 

ERA 

PERIOD 

Man 

Recent 

_0 

Pleistocene 

Terrace 
Cham  plain 
Glacial     • 

Mammals 

q 

0> 
Q 

Tertiary 

s£ssfK««™ 

Eocene 

Cretaceous 

Upper 
Lower 

Reptiles 

esozok 

Jurassic 

Upper 
Middle 
Lower 

5 

Triassic 

Upper 
Middle 
Lower 

Permian 

Acrogens 

Coal  Measures 

Amphibians 

Lower  Carbon- 
iferous 

Fishes 

o 

Devonian 

Catskill 
Chemung 
Hamilton 
Corniferous 
Oriskany 

1 

Silurian 
g    j                  or 
'C         Upper  Silurian 

t  Lower  Helderberg 
Salina 
Niagara 

1  nvertebrates 

5            Ordovician 
co                     or 
Lower  Silurian 

Trenton 
Canadian 

Cambrian 

Potsdam 
Acadian 
Georgian 

c 

08 

O> 

*  Algonkian 

Keweenawan 
Huronian 

g 

<5 

Archean 

Laurentian 

*  Van  Hise  places  the  Algonkian  as  a  separate  formation  between  the  Archean  and 
Paleozoic. 

t  Some  geologists  regard  the  Lower  Helderberg  as  Devonian. 


ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

What  is  meant  by  economic  geology;  geology  in  its  relations  to  arts 
and  industries. 

Necessity  of  understanding  pure  geology  before  attempting  to  apply  it. 

Geological  products  are  used,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  every  branch  of 
human  industry.  The  prosperity  of  a  nation  depends  largely  upon  its  geo- 
logical products. 

Geology  in  its  relations  to  agriculture. 
Soils  are  geological  products. 

Soil  belts  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Indian*,  Missouri. 

Residual  soils  varying  with  the  rock. 

Soils  transported  by    water:  river  bottoms;  by  ice:  drift  area  of 

the  United  States. 
Fertilizers. 

Green-sand  marls  of  New  Jersey. 

Apatite  deposits  of  Canada. 

Phosphates  of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas. 

Land-plaster,  or  gypsum,  of  New  York,  Michigan,  etc. 

Geology  and  forests.* 

Geology  and  industries. 

The  great  industries  of  nations,  states,  and  cities  are  often  determined 
by  local  geology. 

Relations  of  England's  wealth  and  power  to  the  mineral  resources  of 
that  country. 

The  wealth  and  power  of  the  United  States  have  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  development  of  our  mineral  resources. 

Note  the  commercial  importance  of  various  states,  and  how  each  owes 
its  importance  to  some  geological  product,  omitting  purely  mining  and 
purely  manufacturing  states : 

Alabama:  iron,  coal. 

California:  gold,  quicksilver. 

Indiana:   natural  gas,  building  stone,  glass,  coal. 

Maine :  granite. 

Michigan :  copper,  iron  ore. 

*The  relation  between  forestry  and  geology  in  New  Jersey.     By  A.  Hollick.    Amer. 
Nat.,  Jan.  1899,  XXXiil,  1-14;  Feb.  1899,  XXXIII,  109-116. 


4  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Missouri :  zinc,  lead,  iron  ore,  glass-sands,  fire-clays. 

New  Jersey :  marls,  clays,  zinc. 

Ohio:  coal,  building  stone,  natural  gas,  petroleum. 

Pennsylvania:  iron,  coal,  petroJeum. 

Tennessee:  marble,  //^-,  (^•AJ*^*>£e  t 

Vermont:  marble. 

Cities  and  towns  have  often  had  their  locations  determined  by  the 
proximity  to  some  mineral  or  mineral -bearing  formation;  others  owe  their 
importance  to  such  proximity. 

Geology  and  art.* 

The  local  beginnings  of  ceramic  art  were  made  possible  by  the  exist- 
ence of  available  clays.  The  great  art  manufacturing  industries  of  Staf- 
fordshire, England,  and  of  Limoges^  France,  sprang  up  in  those  places 
partly  because  of  the  presence  of  the  necessary  clays  in  those  regions. 

The  influence  of  the  clays  of  New  Jersey  and  Ohio  upon  the  pottery 
industries. 

Influence  of  Parian  and  Carrara  marbles  on  sculpture. 

How  the  geology  of  Holland  affected  the  landscape  paintings  of  that 
country. 

Influence  of  building  stones  and  brick-clays  on  architecture.  Exam- 
ples : — brownstones  of  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut ;  limestones  of  Mon- 
treal; brick-clays  of  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and  Milwaukee. 

Geology  and  roads. 

Character  of  roads  affected  by  local  geology  or  by  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  good  road-making  materials. 

Limestone  "road-metal"  of  Southern  France. 

Drift  gravels  of  the  glaciated  portion  of  the  United  States. 

Jaspers  of  San  Francisco  and  the  Coast  Ranges. 

Geology  and  railways. 

Location  of  railways  often  determined  by  the  presence  of  minerals 
that  promise  business. 

Geologists  employed  by  railways. 

Geology  and  migration. 

*  Landscape  geology.    By  Hugh  Miller.     Trans.  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.,  1892,  VI,  pt.  Ill,  129 
Also  London,  1891. 


ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 


MAPS  AND  SECTIONS  FOE  GEOLOGIC  PURPOSES. 

When  a  geological  deposit  or  formation  has  economic  value,  its  precise 
location  and  distribution  become  important ;  these  can  be  shown  by  maps 
and  sections. 

Advantages  of  maps  over  verbal  descriptions. 

Maps  may  show  horizontal  location  alone,  or  both  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical position. 

Importance  of  horizontal  location. 

Horizontal  location  determining  ownership,  extent,  and  value. 

How  maps  are  made.* 

Regional  maps;  local  maps. 

Every  geologic  map  is    based  upon  some  kind  of  topographic  map, 

and  if  a  topographic  map  is  not  available  one  must  be  made. 
Knowledge  of  map-making  indispensable  to  geologists. 
Triangulation. 

By  U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey;  by  U.  S.  Geological  Survey; 

by  Lake  Survey ;  special  surveys. 
Chaining:  telemeter  or  stadia  measurements. t 
Plane-table  surveying. t 

Advantages  of  finishing  a  map  on  the  ground. 
Photo-topography .  § 
Maps  made  by  reconnoissance  methods. || 

Odometers;  pacing;  pedometers. 
Ordnance  maps  of  England. 

*  Outlines  of  field  geology.    By  Archibald  Geikie.    London  and  New  York,  4th  ed.,  1891. 

A  manual  of  topographic  methods.  By  Henry  Gannett.  Monograph  XXII,  U.  S.  Geol. 
Survey.  Washington.  1893. 

The  aims  and  methods  of  cartography.  By  Henry  Gannett.  Special  publication,  Mary- 
land Geol.  Survey,  vol.  II.  pt.  Ilia.  Baltimore,  1898. 

t  A  new  prismatic  stadia.    By  R.  H.  Richards.    Jour.  Assoc.  of  Eng.  Socs.,  1894,  XIII. 

Topographical  surveying  by  means  of  transit  and  stadia.  By  J.  B.  Johnson.  New 
York,  1885. 

The  theory  of  stadia  measurements,  accompanied  by  tables  of  horizontal  distances  and 
differences  of  level  for  the  reduction  of  stadia  field  observations.  By  Arthur 
WiDslow.  First  report  of  progress  in  the  anthracite  coal  region.  Sec.  Geol.  Sur. 
of  Pa.,  A  A,  1883,  pp.  325-344. 

Stadia  surveying.  By  Arthur  Winslow.  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series,  no.  77;  New 
York. 

I A  treatise  on  the  plane-table  and  its  use  in  topographic  surveying.  Appendix  XIII, 
U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Rep.  for  1880.  Washington,  1882. 

I  Photo-topographic  methods  and  instruments.  By  J.  A.  Flemer.  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  Rep.  for  1897.  pp.  617-735.  Washington,  1898. 

I  The  construction  of  topographic  maps  by  reconnoissance  methods.  By  Arthur  Wins- 
low.  Trans.  Ark.  Soc.  of  Engineers,'  Architects,  and  Surveyors;  1888,  vol.  II,  75- 

Graphic  field  notes  for  areal  geology.    By  Bailey  Willis.    Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Am.,  1891,  II, 
•          177-188. 


8  ECONOMIC- GEOLOGY. 

Maps  made  by  the  U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 

Maps  made  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Maps  made  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office. 

Use  of  township  sheets. 

Spanish  grants  and  irregular  surveys. 

Elevations. 

Vertical  location  upon  maps  shown  by  shading,  hachures,  or  contours. 
,    Importance  of  elevations  in  obtaining  water  supplies ;  artesian  waters ; 

mine  draining ;  prospecting  for  bedded  deposits. 
Value   of   a    common    datum;    advantages  of    mean   tide  level  as  a 

datum. 

Methods  of  determining  elevations. 
Precise  levels.* 

Ordinary  spirit  levels;  hand  level. 

Vertical  arc;  use  of  slide-rule  in  connection  with  arc  observations. 
Mercurial  barometer. 
Aneroid  barometer. t 
Limitations  of  each  method. 

The  accuracy  should  depend  upon  the  demands  placed  or  likely  to  be 
placed  upon  the  work. 

How  sections  are  made. 

How  geology  is  put  on  maps. 
How  geology  is  put  on  sections. 

Relation  of  sections  to  the  map. 
The  importance  of  the  proper  location  of  structural  features  illustrated 

by  synclines  in  the  coal  regions. 
The  cost  of  errors. 
The  difference  between  general  geologic  maps    and  those  used  for 

mining. 
The  uses  and  advantages  of  an  engineer's  training  in  geological  work. 

*  Precise  levels.    Rep.  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  for  1879,  Appendix  XV. 

Transcontinental  line  of  geodetic  spirit-leveling.  Rep.  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey for  1882,  Appendix  XI.  Washington,  1883. 

t  A  new  method  of  measuring  heights  by  means  of  the  barometer.  By  G.  K.  Gilbert. 
Second  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  for  1880-81,  pp.  403-562. 

How  to  use  the  aneroid  barometer.    By  Edward  Whymper.    New  York,  1891. 

The  measurement  of  altitudes.  By  Henry  Gannett.  Mazama  I,  343-264.  Portland,  Or., 
1897. 

The  barometric  determination  of  heights.    By  F.  J.  B.  Cordeiro.    London,  1898.    (Spon.) 


10 


ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 


'""'         _ 

North        of        Brazil 


North-south  sections,  ten  miles  apart,  across  an  anticline  in  the  coal  measures  of 

Indian  Territory.   The  heavy  black  lines  represent  coal  beds;    the  shaded 

areas  represent  shales,  and  the  dotted  areas  sandstones. 


12  ECONOMIC   GEOLOGY. 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEYS. 

Immediate  objects. 

Determining  geological  formations  and  structure. 
Exhibiting  formations  and  structure  on  maps  and  sections. 

Ultimate  objects. 

Turning  maps  and  sections  to  account. 

Pure  science :  knowledge  of  former  physical  conditions.       But  original 

conditions  often  determined  the  contents  of  the  rocks  and  hence 

their  present  values. 
Applied  science :  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  distribution  of  deposits 

-of  economic  value. 

Methods. 

How  the  rocks  are  grouped ;  the  use  of  groups  when  valuable  deposits 

are  confined  to  certain  ones. 
How  groups  or  divisions  are  put  on  maps. 
Method  with  ordinary  maps. 

Method  with  township  sheets ;  inaccuracies  of  township  sheets. 
Method  with  special  topographic  maps. 

Method  with  maps  in  construction ;  the  advantages  of  exact  loca- 
tions. 

Relations  of  map  scale  to  geologic  details. 
Field  notes  to  be  made  on  the  spot. 
Field  work  usually  best  done  with  reference  to  the  season  and  the 

weather. 
Office  work  can  be  done  during  inclement  weather. 

Government  Surveys. 

Necessity  of  knowing  what  geologic  work  has  been  done  in  a  region 
to  be  investigated,  and  where  the  results  have  been  published. 

European  surveys.* 

The  geological  map  of  Europe. 

*  [Geological  survey  of  Great  Britain.]    By  Sir  A.  Geikie.    Geol.  Magazine,  July,  1898, 

V,  306-317,  358-366. 
The  national  geological  surveys  of  Europe.    By  William  Topley.    Brit.  Assoc.  Rep.  for 

1884,  pp.  -221-240.    London,  1885. 
Cost  of  European  geological  surveys.     By  E.  A.  Schneider.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Oct. 

10,  1896,  p.  342;  Oct.  17,  1896,  p.  366;  Oct.  24,  1896,  p.  392. 


14  ECONOMIC   GEOLOGY. 

U.  S.  geological  surveys.* 

Exploring  expeditions  with  geological  attache's. 
Wheeler  survey,  U.  S.  Engineers,  War  Department. 
Hayden  survey,  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Powell  survey,  Department  of  the  Interior. 
King  survey,  40th  parallel,  under  the  War  Department. 
Present  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Duties  as  denned :  to  make  a  geologic  map  of  the  public  domain. 
Scope  of  work. 

Paleontology,   economic  geology,  topography,  mineral  statistics, 

hydrography,  irrigation,  chemistry,  physics,  engraving. 
Publications. 

Annual  reports  since  1880  (quartos) ;  contents. 
Monographs  (quartos)  now  number  38  volumes;  contents. 
Bulletins  (octavos)  now  number  159  on  geology  and  3L  on  water- 
supply  and  irrigation. 
Mineral  resources  (octavos)  from  1882  to  1893;  since  1895  they 

form  part  of  the  annual  reports  (quartos). 
Folios  of  the  geologic  atlas  of  the  United  States,  55  published; 

show  topography  aud  geology,  with  brief  descriptions. 
How  the  U.  S.  Survey  reports  may  be  obtained. 

State  geological  surveys. 

State  surveys  usually  established  for  economic  purposes. 
Purposes  and  success  often  depend  upon  the  state  geologist. 

Methods  of  selecting  state  geologists:  appointment,  election. 
Methods  and  results  of  typical  state  surveys. 

The  New  York  survey. 

Pennsylvania  survey. 

Arkansas  survey. 

Political  surveys. 

Boards  of  commissioners  or  control. 
Relations  of  national  and  state  surveys. 

Aid  of  state  surveys  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 

Aid  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

*  Surveys  of  the  Territories.    House  miscellaneous  document  no.  5.    45th  Cong.,  3d  ses. 
On  the  organization  of  scientific  work  of  the  general  government.    By  J.  W.  Powell. 

Washington,  1886. 
Testimony  before   the  Joint  Commission.    Senate  mis.  doc.  82,   49th  Cong.,   1st  ses. 

Washington,  1886. 
Relations  of  state  and  national  geological  surveys.    By  J.  C.  Branner.    Proc.  Amer. 

Assoc.  Advancement  of  Science,  XXXIX.  219-237. 
The  geology  of  government  explorations.    By  S.  F.  Emmons.    Presidential  ad.,  Geol. 

Soc.     Washington,  1896. 
Official  geology.    By  H.  H.  Stoek.    The  Mining  Bulletin,  II,  38-52.    [State  College,  Pa.] 

March,  1896. 


16  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Publications. 

Annual  reports. 
Bulletins. 
Monographs. 

Publication  of  field  notes;  objections  to  such  reports. 
Cost  of  state  surveys. 
Appropriations  by  legislatures. 
Special  provisions  for  surveys. 
Private  geological  surveys. 

By  scientific  societies  and  exploring  parties. 
By  private  corporations. 

Northern  Pacific  Eailway,  coal  companies,  and  other  mining  com- 
panies, for  business  purposes. 
By  individuals. 


18  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGIC    DEPOSITS. 


ECONOMIC  GEOLOGIC  DEPOSITS. 

The  nature  of  geologic  products. 

Great  variation  in  characters  in  single  classes. 

Structual  materials:  stone,  glass-sand,  slates,  asphaltum. 

Fuels:  coal,  oil,  gas. 

Ores  of  base  metals:  iron,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  copper. 

Ores  of  the  precious  metals :  gold,  silver. 

Precious  stones:  diamonds,  emeralds,  rubies. 

Earthy  minerals :  clays,  bauxites,  fertilizers,  chalks. 

The  origin  of  geologic  deposits. 

Geological  deposits  of  economic  value  orginate  in  ways  as  widely  dif- 
ferent as  the  deposits  themselves. 

They  may  be  classified  according  to  the  processes  of  their  formation  as 
(1)  mechanical;  (2)  chemical;  (3)  igneous:  (4)  organic. 

The  following  are  illustrations : 

I.  Mechanical  deposits:  building  stones,  grindstones,  marls,  clays,  sands, 

some  limestones  and  marbles. 
Mechanical  concentrations:  placer  gold,  some  diamonds,  some  tin. 

II.  Chemical  deposits  from  concentration  :  salt,  gypsum. 

Deposits  from  solution  on  exposure:  stalactites,  "  onyx  "  marble. 
Deposits  from  solution  on  relief  of  pressure  or  lowering  of  temperature 
or  both  ;  many  important  ore  deposits. 

III.  Poured  out  as  igneous  rocks. 

Crystallized  out  in  rock  masses :  feldspar,  rutile,  diamonds,  emery, 
certain  precious  stones. 

IV.  Organic  deposits  from  plants :  peat,  coal;  from  animals:  tripoli.  some 

limestones. 

Distillations  from  organic  deposits:  petroleum,  gas,  asphaltum, 
ozokerite. 

Any  of  these  deposits  are  liable  to  be  changed  by  metamorphism,  and 
many  deposits  owe  their  value  to  their  having  passed  through  such 
changes. 

Some  marbles  are  metamorphosed  limestones. 

Slates  are  metamorphosed  clay  shales. 

Anthracite  is  changed  coal. 

Coal  is  changed  peat. 

Kaolin  is  decayed  feldspar. 

Some  polishing  powders  are  decayed  cherts  or  novaculites. 

Relation  of  the  method  of  its  formation  to  the  form  and  distribution 
of  a  deposit  of  economic  value. 


20  CLASSIFICATION  'OF    GEOLOGIC    DEPOSITS. 

The  classification  of  economic  geologic  deposits. 

The  classification  of  geologic  deposits  is  a  matter  of  convenience,  and 
the  basis  of  the  classification  must  be  determined  by  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  intended.  It  may  be  based  upon : 

I.  Geographic  distribution. 

National,  state,  and  local  reports. 

II.  The  minerals  contained. 

This  would  group  together  all  similar  minerals,  regardless  of  their 
origin,  geographic  or  geologic  position.  Example :  hydrocarbons 
of  different  origins,  various  compositions  and  occurrences. 

III.  Geologic  distribution,  or  that  of  the  rocks  containing  the  minerals. 

Relations  of  such  grouping  to  historical  geology. 

IV.  Shape  of  the  deposits. 

Classifications  of  ore  deposits  by  different  writers. 
Yon  Cotta's.* 

1.  Regular  deposits. 

2.  Irregular  deposits. 

Whitney 's.t 

1.  Superficial. 

i  Constituting  the  mass  of  a  bed. 

2.  Stratified       -.  Disseminated  through  sedimentary  beds. 

(  Deposited  from  solution,  metamorphosed. 

(  Eruptive  masses. 
|  Disseminated  in  eruptive  rocks. 
( Irregular  <j  Stockwork  deposits. 
j  Contact  deposits. 

3.  Unstratifiedj  I  Fahlbands. 

( Segregated  veins, 
t  Regular    *  Gash  veins. 

if  Fissure  veins. 

Penrose  follows  Whitney's  classification,  with  the  following  modifi- 
cations : 

( Placers. 

f  Stream  and  littoral  •]  Stream  tin. 

Superficial  de-  !  (  Magnetic  iron  sands, 

posits  j  Bog  and  lake  deposits. 

[  Residuary  deposits. 

(  Eruptive  and  disseminated  in  eruptives. 
Irregular    un-  j  Impregnations, 
stratified  de-  <j  Reticulated  veins, 
posits  j  Contact  deposits, 

t  Chamber  deposits. 

*  A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.    By  B.  Von  Cotta.    New  York,  1870. 

tThe  metallic  wealth  of  the  United  States.    By  J.  D.  Whitney,  p.  34.    Philadelphia, 
1864. 


22  CLASSIFICATION    OF   GEOLOGIC   DEPOSITS. 

V.  Origin  and  method  of  formation  :  genetic. 
Kemp's  classification  of  ore  deposits. 

1.  Igneous  origin.* 

2.  From  solution. 

3.  From  suspension. 
Posepny's  two  classes  of  ore  deposits.! 

1.  Idiogenous  (contemporaneous  with  the  rock). 

2.  Xenogenous  (of  later  origin  than  the  rock). 
Crosby's  classification  of  economic  deposits.* 

1.  Igneous  origin. 

2.  Aqueo-igneous  origin. 

3.  Aqueous  origin. 

These  and  others  may  be  useful  each  in  its  place,  and  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  made.§ 

In  the  present  lectures  the  minerals  are  taken  up  separately  and  no 
particular  classification  is  followed. 

*  On  the  igneous  origin  of  certain  ore  deposits.    By  F.  D.  Adams.    Montreal,  1894. 
t  The  genesis  of  ore  deposits.    By  F.  Posepny.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  M.  Eng.,  1893,  XXIII, 
197-369,  and  the  separate  publication  by  the  Amer.  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  New 


t  A  classification  of  economic  geological  deposits.    By  W.  O.  Crosby,  American  Geolo- 
gist, 1894,  XIII,  249-268.    Furt 
January,  1895,  LIX,  28. 


.  .     .  , 

ist,  1894,  XIII,  249-268.    Further  discussed  in  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 


A  new  classification  of  economic  geological  deposits.  By  R.  W.  Raymond,  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  Nov.  3.  1894,  pp.  412-113.  (A  criticism  of  Prof.  Crosby's  class- 
ification.) 

2  For  other  classifications  see  Kemp's  Ore  deposits,  pp.  44-55. 

Phillips'  Ore  deposits,  p.  3. 

Report  of  the  state  geologist  of  Mich,  for  1891-92.    By  M.  E.  Wadsworth.     p.  144. 


24 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 


ROCK  CAVITIES. 

The  forms  of  ore-bodies  lead  to  the  belief  that  many  of  them  are  de- 
posited in  cavities  and  fissures  in  the  rocks.  To  understand  such  deposits 
it  is  therefore  necessary  to  understand  the  forms  and  relations  of  rock 
cavities. 

Two  Ways  of  Making  Cavities. 

In  studying  rock  cavities  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  depth  at 
which  cavities  can  remain  open  is  limited.* 

Cavities  formed  by  solution. 

Solvent  power  of  acidulated  waters. 
Dissolved  matter  in  spring  and  stream  waters. 

All  the  matter  in   solution  has    been  removed  from  the  rocks 

through  which  the  water  has  passed. 

Cavities  small  and  large  produced  by  constant  action  of  percolating 
waters. 


Fig.  2.— Ideal  section  through  a  limestone  region,  showing  caves  left  by  the  removal  of 
the  rock. 

Cave-making  hastened  by  mechanical  action. 

Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky  has  thirty-five  to  forty  miles  of  tun- 
nels along  which  one  can  walk ;  cavern  70  feet  to  200  feet 
high  in  places;  12  million  cubic  yards  of  rock  removed. 
Caves  in  limestone  regions. 
More  than  100,000  miles  of  caves  in  Kentucky. t 

Supposed  to  be  formed  above  drainage,  but  in  Florida  they  must  be 
formed  below  drainage. 

Cavities  formed  by  fracturing. 

Some  of  the  rock  cavities  in  which  ore  deposits  have  been  formed  have 
the  appearance  of  having  originated  as  fractures. 


ire-walls  as  affected  by  sub-fissuring  and  by  the  flo- 
Trans.  Am.  Inst,  M.  Eng.,  1895,  XXV,  499-513. 


*The  form  of  fls 

William  Glenn. 
Flow  and  fracture  of  rocks  as  related  to  structure.    By  L.  M.  Hoskin 

rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  I,  1896,  pp.  845-874. 
Deformation  of  rocks.    By  C.  R.  Van  Rise.    Journal  Geol.,  1896,  IV,  195-213. 
t  The  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky.    By  H.  C.  Hovey  and  R.  E.  Call. 


v  of  rocks.    By 
Sixteenth  ann. 


26 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 


I.  Fractures  produced  by  shrinkage. 
Contraction  produced  by  cooling. 

Deep-seated  rocks  are  highly  heated;  if  by  erosion,  faulting,  or 
other  means,  they  are  brought  near  the  surface,  they  must 
cool  and  shrink. 


Limonite- 


Fig.  3.— Iron  ore  filling  the  cavities  in  fractured  limestone,  Wythe  county,  Virginia. 
(Benton.) 

Expansion  for  increase  of  one  degree  Fahrenheit : 

Granite,  one  inch  in  about  15,000  feet. 

Marble,  one  inch  in  about  10,000  feet. 

Sandstone,  one  inch  in  about  8,000  feet. 

Slate,  one  inch  in  about  14,400  feet. 
Contraction  produced  by  dolomitization.* 
Common  in  some  limestone  regions. 
Shrinkage  twelve  per  cent. 
Breccia,  t 
II.  Fractures  produced  by  folding  of  the  strata. t 


Pig.  4. —  Section  across  saddle-reef  folds  at  Hargreaves,  New  South  Wales.    The  black 
areas  represent  ores  deposited  in  openings  made  at  the  anticlinal  crests. 


*  (On  dolomitization.)    By  E.  de  Beaumont,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  VIII,  1836, 

pp.  174-177. 

Robert  Bell,  Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  VI,  295. 
tLead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.    By  A.  Winslow.    Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E..  1894. 

XXIV,  673-674. 
Origin  of  the  brecciated  character  of  the  St.  Louis  limestone.    By  C.  H.  Gordon.    Jour. 

Geol.,  1895,  III,  307. 
I  Etudes  synthetiques  de  geologic  experimentale.    Par  A.  Daubrge.    Paris,  1879.    pp. 

The    mechanics  of   Appalachian  structure.    By  Bailey  WilUs.    Thirteenth  ann.  rep. 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1891-92.  pp.;211-281. 


ROCK    CAVITIKS. 


Fig  5.— Normal  or  step  faults  in  the  coal  measures  of  Scotland. 

Strain  caused  by  lateral  pressure. 
Relief  by  fractures  along  anticlines.* 
Widespread  folding  of  rocks. 
III.  Fractures  produced  by  faulting. 

Faults  are  displacements  of  strata,  either  vertical  or  horizontal. 


Fig.  6.— A  normal  fault  in  the  zinc  region  of  North  Arkansas.    The  fault  in  the  middle 
of  the  section  has  broken  and  displaced  all  the  beds. 


Normal  and  reversed  faults. 

Character  of   fracture  depends  partly  on 
the  character  of  the  rock. 

Fault   fractures    sometimes    left    open    or 
filled  with  debris  that  permits  perco- 
lation of  water. 
IV.  Fractures  produced  by  earthquakes. t 

Examples  of  Japanese  earthquake  faults. J 

Fractures  may  be   opened   without  faults 
being  produced. 

Examples  of  Charleston  earthquake. § 


Fig.  7. — Fracture  tilled  along 
a  fault  plane. 


*  Saddle  reefs  at  Hargreaves.  By  J.  A.  Watt.  Records  Geol.  Survey  N.  S.  Wales,  V. 
pt.  IV,  1898,  p.  153;  VI,  pt.  II,  1899,  p.  83. 

t  Across  Vatna  Jokull,  or  scenes  in  Iceland.  By  W.  L.  Watts,  101,  109,  119,  153-157. 
London,  1876.  (Fissures  in  volcanic  regions.) 

I  The  great  earthquake  in  central  Japan.  By  B.  Kot6.  Journal  of  the  College  of  Sci- 
ence, Imperial  University  of  Japan,  vol.  V,  pt.  IV.  Tokyo,  1893. 

I  The  Charleston  earthquake.    By  C.  E.  Button.    Ninth  ann.  rep.  IT.  S.  Geol.  Survey, 


30 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 


Fig.  8. —  Open  fracture  formed  during  an  earthquake  in  Arizona. 

Debris  filling  such  cavities. 

Other  fractures  not  included  under  either  of  these  heads  may  be  pro- 
duced by  any  constant  shifting  of  the  strains  in  the  earth's  crust  or  by  the 
elevations  and  depressions  of  large  areas. 


Fig.  9.—  Section  of  a  fault  formed  during  a  Japanese  earthquake.    (KotG.) 


FORMATION    OF   ORE-BODIED. 


THE  FORMATION  OF  ORE-BODIES.* 

Ore  is  a  metalliferous  mineral  or  rock,  especially  one  of  sufficient  value 
to  be  mined.  (Cent.  Diet.) 

Ore  as  distinguished  from  earthy  mineral. 

Ore  deposits  as  distinguished  from  other  geologic  deposits  of  economic 
importance. 

Following  a  general  genetic  classification  ore-bodies  occur  as : 
(1)  bedded  deposits;  (2)  vein  deposits;  (3)  surface  deposits  of  recent  date. 


Fig.  10.— Iron  ores  of  Michigan  interbedded  with  other  rocks.    (Emmons.) 


Fig.  11.— Geological  section  in  the  manganese  region  of  North  Arkansas.    The  black 

bands  represent  beds  of  manganese  that  were  deposited  in  layers 

alternating  with  the  accompanying  rocks. 


I.  Bedded  deposits  contemporaneous  with  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur. 
The  origin  of  bog  iron  ores. 
Originally  surface  deposits. 

Why  they  are  sometimes  interbedded  with  other  rocks. 
Changes  through  which  the  ore  and  its  accompanying  rocks  may  have 

passed:  folds,  faults,  erosion,  metamorphism,  replacement. 
The  structural  features  of  such  ore-bodies  are  involved  in  the  general 

structure  of  the  region. 
Conglomerate  beds  subsequently  filled;  lead  mine  in  bedded  deposits 

at  Doe  Run,  Missouri. 
Auriferous  conglomerates  of  South  Africa. t 

*  The  metallic  wealth  of  the  United  States.    By  J.  D.  Whitney,    pp.  33-68. 

The  genesis  of  ore  deposits.    By  Franz  Posepny.    New  York,  1895. 

The  ore  deposits  of  the  United  States.    By  J.  F.  Kemp.    New  York,  1893.    pp.  28-65. 

tThe  gold  mines  of  the  Rand.    By  Hatch  and  Chalmers.    London,  1895. 

Diamonds  and  gold  in  South  Africa.    By  T.  Reunert.    Capetown,  1893. 

Les  mines  d'or  du  Transvaal.    Par  L.  de  Launay.    Paris,  1896.    pp.  143-158;  177-311. 


34  FORMATION    OF    ORE-BODIES. 

II.  Vein  deposits.* 

"  Veins  are  aggregations  of  mineral  matter  in  fissures  in  rocks.     Lodes 
are  therefore  aggregations  of  mineral  matter  containing  ore  in 
fissures."— Von  Cotta.t 
Importance    of    defini- 
tions in  law. 
The  formation   of    ore- 
bodies  ( except  sur- 
face and  bedded  de- 
posits) takes  place: 
a.  By  the  filling  of  open 

cavities ; 

6.  By   the  replacement 
of   one  mineral   by 


Fig.  12.— Banded  structure  of  a  mineral  vein  formed  by 
layers  filling  a  cavity  in  the  rocks. 


another ; 
c.  By  accretion. 
The  formation  of  ore-bodies  by 

A.  The  filling  of  cavities. 

The  general  size  and  shape  of  an  ore-body  formed  by  the  filling  of  a 
cavity  is  necessarily  determined  by  the  size  and  shape  of  the  cavity. 


Fig.  13.—  Section  of  a  box  pipe  used  for  ten  years  in  the  Comstock  mines  to  carry  mine 

water  from  the  600  to  the  1000  foot  level.    This  box  is  lined  by  a  crust  of  aragon- 

ite  more  than  half  an  inch  thick,  deposited  by  the  water  passing  through  it. 


*  A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.    By  J.  A.  Phillips;    2d  ed.  by  Henry  Louis.    London,  1896, 

pp.  119-141. 
t  A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.    By  B.  Von  Cotta.    Translated  by  F.  Prime.    New  York,, 

1870,  p.  26. 


36  FORMATION    OF    ORE-BODIES. 

Crustification  as  distinguished  from  stratification.     (Fig.  12. > 

Vein  matter  precipitated  from  solution  on  the  walls  of  cavities. 
Methods  of  filling  cavities. 

Deposition  from  solutions  by  cooling  and  relief  of  pressure.     (Fig. 
13.) 

Sublimates  deposited  by  solfataric  action. 
Origin  of  the  mineral-bearing  solutions. 

Theory  of  ascending  waters. 

Sandberger's  theory  of  lateral  infiltrations.* 

Relation  of  structural  features  of  a  region  to  the  origin  of  different 
deposits. 

B.   The  replacement  of  one  mineral  by  another. 

Examples  of  such  replacement  in  the  silicification  of  corals,  wood,  and 

shells,  and  the  replacement  of  organic  matter  by  iron  pyrites. 
This  process  is  called  metasomatic  replacement. 
Replacement  in  dolomitization. 


-=-  _,_       _il -     ,-v      J  ^/™%^\ 

_QQiOMlTE LL    V  ^  >«»5Sr«n!SS 


Fig.  15. — Horizontal  plan  of 
Fig.  14. 


Fig.  14.— Vertical  section  in  a  quarry  at  Kilkenny, 

Ireland,  showing  the  unaltered  limestone 

and  dolomite.    (Prestwich.) 

C.  The  enlargement  of  veins  by  accretion. 
Enlargement  of  quartz  grains. 

Illustration  of  needle  ice  and  crystallization  in  the  soil. 
The  size,  form,  and  structural  relations  of  certain  geodes  due  to  en- 
largement, t 

Evidences  of  the  mechanical  force  of  the  process. 
Possible  relations  to  vein  enlargement  and  to  brecciation.     (Fig.  16.) 

*  Canadian  Naturalist,  new  ser.,  1877,  VIII,  345-363.     American  Geologist,  Dec.,  1896, 

p.  393. 
t  Formation  of  dikes  and  veins.    By  N.  S.  Shaler.    gul.  Geol.  Soc.  America,  1899,  X, 


38 


FORMATION    OF    ORE-BODIES. 


III.  Deposits  of  recent  date,  at  or  near  the  surface.* 

The  usual  classification  of  mineral  deposits  as  "  surface  deposits  "  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  many  of  these  are  ho  longer  either  at  or  near 
the  surface.  Examples:  bog  iron  of  Carboniferous  age;  placer  gold  of 
Cretaceous  age.t 

Surface  deposits  are  local,  and  are  forming  at  present:  they  are  formed 
(1)  by  mechanical  concentration;  (2)  by  chemical  action. 

Many  valuable  deposits  that  are  not  classed  as  ores  are  formed  by 
these  methods.  Examples  :  many  phosphates  ;  salt;  gypsum;  kaolin; 
rnonazite  sands ;  and  others. 


Fig.  16.— A   geode   formed   in   the   stem   of    a  crinoid.    The  accretion  started  in  the 

hollow  stem,  burst  it,  and  pushed  the  fragments  apart.    Two 

views  of  the  same  specimen:  natural  size. 

I.  Deposits  formed  by  mechanical  concentration. 

These  result  from  the  decay  of  rocks  and  the  mechanical  concentration 

of  the  minerals  contained. 
Examples : 

Stream  and  littoral  deposits. 
Placer  gold. 
Stream  tin. 
Magnetic  sands. 
Brazilian  diamonds. 

II.  Deposits  formed  by  chemical  action. 

Surface  deposits  from  chemical  action  or  chemical  alterations  at  the 

*  For  references  see  titles  given  under  the  heads  of  the  minerals  mentioned  as  examples, 
t  Auriferous  conglomerate  in  California.    By  R.  L.  Dunn.    Twelfth  rep.  State  Mineralo- 
gist, 1893-94,  pp.  469-471. 


40  FORMATION    OF   ORE-BODIES. 

surface  result  in  many  ways.     Examples  of  such  deposits  are  bog  iron  ores, 
salt,  gypsum,  nitre,  soda. 

Incrustations  of  smithsonite.     "  Mexican  onyx." 

Some  ore-bodies  and  deposits,  though  not  necessarily  deposited  by 
chemical  action,  owe  their  value  to  chemical  alterations  at  or  near  the 
surface. 

Residuary  deposits  produced  by  chemical  (and  mechanical)  action  and 

concentration. 

Manganese  ores  of  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Virginia,  and  Brazil. 
Gossan,  the  altered  part  of  a  lode. 
Kaolins  and  clays  by  decomposition. 
Fullers'  earth  in  Arkansas. 


FEATURES    OF   ORE    DEPOSITS. 


FEATURES  OF  ORE  DEPOSITS. 

The  features  of  ore  deposits,  their  shape,  structure,  and  general  rela- 
tions, depend  partly  upon  the  methods  of  their  formation,  that  is,  whether 
they  were  laid  down  as  bedded  deposits  contemporaneous  with  their 
accompanying  rock  beds,  or  were  deposited  later  in  cavities,  or  occur  as 
replacements. 

General  forms. 

Shapes  of  cave  deposits.    Example:  Marble  Cave,  Missouri. 

Shapes  of  bedded  deposits  determined  by  the  conditions  of  deposition. 

Example :  the  iron  ores  of  Pennsylvania. 
Thinning  out;  causes.     (Pig.  17.) 
Shapes  of  fissure  deposits. 
Fissure  veins. 
Gash,  lenticular,  bedded,  and  contact  veins. 


Fig.  17. — Lens-shaped  masses  of  manganese 
mterbedded  with  sedimentary  rocks. 


Fig.  19.— Reversed   faults   in    horizontal   rocks 

that  have  broken  the  original  beds 

but  left  them  parallel. 


Fig.  18.— Gash  vein  in  magne- 
sian  limestone  of  Wiscon- 
sin.   (Chamberlain.) 


Figs.  20-21. —Illustrations  of  single  veins  repeated  by  faulting  that  left  the  different 
pieces  parallel. 


44 


FEATURES    OF    ORE    DEPOSITS. 


Irregularities  of  thickness ;  cause  of  pinching  out. 
Irregularities  of  direction,  outcrop,  dip,  and  strike. 
Groups  of  veins  (Fig.  22) ;  feeders  ;  ore-shoots  or  chutes 

and  chimneys. 
Parallelism  of  veins. 
Produced  by  torsion  or 
other  fractures,  or 
by  bedding. 

Complications  produced  by 
faulting.  (Figs.  19,  20, 
21.) 

Effect  of    vertical    displace- 
ments; of   lateral  dis- 
placements.   (Fig.  24.) 
Complications    by    intersec- 
tion of  several  ore  deposits. 
Mother  lode  of  California  112  miles  long.* 

Relations  to  other  lodes. 
Size  and  extent  of  ore  deposits. 

Uncertainties  regarding  the  size  and  form  of  ore-bodies. 


Fig.  23.— Parallelism  of  coal  beds 
produced  by  the  original  bed- 
ding of  the  rocks. 


Fig.  24. —  Section  showing  both  vertical  and 

horizontal  faulting  of  a  vein.  Enterprise 

mine,  Rico,  Colorado.    (Rickard.  j 

1  Geology  of  the  mother  lode  regfon.    By  H.  W.  Fairbanks,    Tenth  ann.  rep.  State  Mir 
ing  Bureau  of  California,  pp.  23-90- 


46 


FEATURES    OF    ORE    DEPOSITS. 


Internal  and  structural  features. 

Banded  structure  produced  by  crustification. 

Brecciated  structure  produced  by  cementing  of  fractured  materials. 


Fig.  25.— A  vein  brecciated  on  one  side  and      Fig.  26.— Ore-bearing  quartz  vein.    The  coun- 
banded  on  the  other.  try  rock  is  altered,  but  contains  no 

ore.    (Lindgren.) 


Fig.  27. — Quartz  vein  along  the  foot-wall  of  a 

porphyry  dike,  with  stringers  running  off 

into  the  porphyry.    (Lindgren.) 


Fig.  28. — Vein  with  its  ores  extending  into 

the  altered  country  rock. 

(Lindgren.) 


Definitions  of  terms. 

Hanging-wall;  foot- wall;  country  rock. 

Selvage,  gouge,  or  flucan  is  the  clay  seam  between  vein  and  wall- 
rock. 

Possible  relation  of  clay  to  the  vein  matter. 
Ore. 

Gangue. 

Association  of  ores  and  gangues. 
Some  veins  sharply  defined ;  others  merge  into  their  walls.  (Figs.  25, 28.) 

Distribution  of  ores  in  veins. 

Distribution  due  to  variation  in  size  of  the  vein. 


48 


FEATURES    OF    ORE    DEPOSITS. 


Distribution  due  to  other  causes. 

Bonanzas  are  ore  pockets  or  local  enlargements  of  the  vein. 

Horses;  stringers  (Fig.  27);  chutes;  chimneys. 
Effect  of  change  of  dip  on  the  character  of  the  lode. 
Effect  of  country  rock  on  the  lode.* 

Ore-bodies  often  found  at  the  contact  between  two  formations. 


Fig.  29.— A  horse  with  the  vein  pass-       Fig.  30.— Contact  deposits  in  the  neck  of  an  ex- 
ing  around  it  on  both  sides. 


Figs.  31-32.— Examples  of  contact  deposits  or  ore-bodies  at  the  contact  between  two 
different  kinds  of  rock. 


Fig.  33.— Contact  deposits  in  limestone 
beneath  shale. 


Fig.  34.— Superficial  alteration  of  a  contact 
deposit. 


Ores  affected  by  superficial  alteration,  t 
Oxidation  at  the  immediate  surface. 

Gossan,  Colorado,  chapeau  de  fer,  eisener  hut. 

Origin    of  these  names  from  the  rusty  brown   color  of    the  oxi- 
dized ores. 

*  An  inquiry  into  the  deposition  of  lead  ore.    By  L.  Bradley.    London,  1862. 
t  The  superficial  alteration  of  ore  deposits.    By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.    Journal  of  Geol- 
ogy, vol.  II,  pp.  288-317. 


50 


FEATURES   OF   ORE    DEPOSITS. 


Why  free  gold  near  the  surface  is  replaced  by  sulphides  in  depths. 
Depths  to  which  alterations  extend  and  the  nature  of  the   changes 
with  various  ores. 

Iron  ores. 

Copper  ores  in  Chili  affected  to  1,500  feet. 

Lead. 

Silver  in  Granite  Mountain,  Montana,  to  900  feet. 

Gold. 

Zinc  changed  to  carbonate  to  the  depth  of  weathering. 
Effect  of  these  changes  upon  the  value  of  the  ores. 

Different  treatment  required  for  the  unaltered  ores. 


Fig.  Sfc^Ideal  section  showing  the  superficial  alteration  of  iron  ores  in  Michigan  and 
Minnesota. 


U.  4,Q. 


lIL 


U.  %>A, 


, 


i+  ii 


,    15.   3-  ;  31  , 


52  IRON. 


IRON.* 

Importance  of  iron. 

Prevalence  of  iron  in  rocks. 

Iron  is  seldom  found  in  the  native  state ;  some  meteorites  are  native  iron. 

The  ores  of  iron:  oxides,  carbonates,  sulphides. 

Oxides :  anhydrous ;  hydrous. 
Anhydrous. 

Hematite  ( Fe2  Oa  ),  oxygen  30,  iron  70,  if  chemically  pure. 

Most  important  of  American  ores. 
Specular  iron. 
Red  hematite,  "  kidney  "  ore  when  reniform. 

Fossil  ore. 

Itabirite,  iron  schist. 
Red  ochres. 

Magnetite  (  Fes  Oi  ),  oxygen  27.6,  iron  72.4. 
Magnetic  ore;  often  titaniferous.t 
Franklinite  deposits  of  New  Jersey. 
Hydrous  oxides. 

Limonite,  or  brown  hematite  (2Fea  Oa  .  3H-2  O),  oxygen  25.7, 

water  14.5,  iron  59.8. 
Bog  iron ;  how  formed. 
Ochres  (excepting  red  ochre). 
Other  forms  of  limonite. 
Carbonates. 

Siderite,  or  spathic  iron  (  FeCOa  ),  carbon  dioxide  37.9,  iron  pro- 
toxide 62.1,  equivalent  to  48.2  metallic  iron. 
Clay  ironstone. 
Blackband. 
Brown  carbonate. 

Sulphide.     (Iron  pyrites,  FeSa  ),  sulphur  53.4,  iron  46.6. 
Used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphur  and  sulphuric  acid. 
(See  under  Iron  Pyrites.) 

Impurities  found  in  the  ores  of  iron. 

Phosphorus  makes  iron  "cold  short." 

*  HiBtory  of  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  all  ages.    By  James  M.  Swank.    Philadelphia, 

The  iron  manufacturer's  guide.    By  J.  P.  Lesley.    New  York,  1859. 

t  A  brief  review  of  the  titaniferous  magnetites.    By  J.  F.  Kemp.    School  of  Mines  Quar- 
terly, July,  1899,  XX.  323^356;  Nov.,  1899,  XXI,  5^-65. 


L 


.    18(.  - 


I     oJ 


9  6 


<^^£_ 


a  ,   . 


li^M^  ,    in>-? 


/I' 


54  IRON. 

Sulphur  makes  iron  brittle  at  a  red  heat  ("  hot  short  ")  and  destroys 

its  welding  power.  / 

Silica. 
Titanium. 

.  Copper.  $ 

Arsenic. 
Antimony. 
Processes  have  been  devised  for  using  ores  containing  impurities. 

The  Thomas-Gilchrist  process  of  steel  making  uses  pig  iron  high 

in  phosphorus. 
The  Clapp-Griffiths  process  permits  much  phosphorus  when  silicon 

is  carefully  excluded. 

In  general  the  impurities  that  damage  ore  for  one  purpose  may  be 
beneficial  for  some  other. 

The  properties  that  determine  the  value  of  iron  ores. 

The   Bessemer  process  of  decarburizing  cast  iron,  by   which  steel  is 

cheapened. 

Bessemer  ore  should  not  contain  more  than  0.05  per  cent,  phosphorus. 
Non-  Bessemer  iron  ore. 

Distribution  of  the  ores  of  iron. 
Geological. 

Iron  is  found  in  all  ages,  but  is  of  more  importance  in  some  than 

in  others. 

Pre-Cambrian  iron  of  Lake  Superior. 
Cambro-Silurian  iron  of  Brazil. 
Silurian  ore  of  Missouri. 
Archean,  Cambro-Silurian,  Silurian,  and  Carboniferous  iron  belts 

of  the  Appalachians. 
Tertiary  iron  of  Texas  and  Arkansas.* 
Iron  deposits  forming  at  the  present  time. 
Geographical  distribution. 
Foreign  iron  regions. 
United  Kingdom,  Germany,  France,  are  the  principal  foreign  pro- 

ducers. 

Other  countries. 

Distribution  in  America  outside  of  United  States. 
The  iron  ores  of  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  Canada. 

IRON  REGIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  t 

There  are  three  general  regions  :  Appalachian  region  ;  Lake  Superior  re- 
gion ;  western  region. 

•The  iron  deposits  of  Arkansas.    By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.    Geol.  Survey  of  Ark.,  for 

1892,  1.    Little  Rook,  1892. 
tThe  mining  industries  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of  the  precious  metals).    By 

Raphael  Pumpelly.    Tenth  census,  XV.    Washington,  1886. 

#   A- 


.    fO  I    - 


56  IRON. 

/.  The  Appalachian  region:  Ores  mostly  non-Bessemer. 

Iron  occurs  in  four  general  northeast-southwest    belts  following 

the  geological  structure. 
Beginning  with  the  easternmost,  these  are : 

Archean  belt:  Ores  chiefly  lenticular  deposits  of  magnetite 
in  gneisses  and  other  metamorphic  rocks.  This  belt  is 
most  important  in  the  Adirondacks  —  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  and  Virginia. 

Cambro-Silurian  belt :  Ores  chiefly  non-Bessemer  limonites, 
associated  with  schists,  limestones,  and  clays.  This  belt 
is  most  important  in  Virginia,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  and 
Pennsylvania. 

Upper  Silurian  belt :  Ores  non-Bessemer  red  hematites,  "  fossil 
ore,"  limited  to  the  Clinton  beds,  which  contain  inter- 
calated beds  of  iron  ore  almost  everywhere  that  they 
occur.  They  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  district,  where  they  are  the  chief  source 
of  supply. 

Carboniferous  belt :  Carbonate  ores  are  of  little  importance  at 
present.    Western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky  ores 
are  of  this  type. 
The  most  important  producing  states  in  the  Appalachian  region  (in  the 

order  of  their  importance  in  1897)  are: 

Alabama:*  Production  in  1897,  2,350,456  tons,  worth  66  cents  per 
ton  at  the  mines. 

Ores:  Non-Bessemer  hematites  in  the  Clinton  beds  (Upper 
Silurian)  are  the  most  important. 

Brown  hematites  (limonite)  belonging  to  Cambro-Silurian 
belt  are  also  important. 

Associated  rocks. 

Birmingham  is  the  chief  district.. 

Pennsylvania:  Product  in  1897,  810,591  tons;  value  per  ton  at  the 
mines,  $1.05. 

Ores :  The  Archean  magnetites  and  Cambro-Silurian  limonites 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  are  the  most  important ; 
Hematites  and  carbonates  are  of  little  importance. 
Virginia:*  Production  in  1897,  796,463  tons;   value  per  ton  at  the 
mines,  $1.22. 

Ore :  Chiefly  limonite. 

Geological  relations  of  the  ores. 

The  Rich  Patch  deposits. t     (Figs.  36,  37.) 

*  Iron-making  in  Alabama.    By  W.  B.  Phillips.    Geol.  Survey  of  Ala.,  1896;  2d  ed.,  1898. 
t  The  Rich  Patch  iron  tract,  Virginia.    By  H.  M.  Chance.    Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng. 

1899. 
J  Geol.  Atlas,  U.  S.  G.  S.    Staunton  folio.    1894. 


58 


IRON. 


Tennessee:*  Production  in  1897,  677,037  tons;  value  per  ton  at  the 

mines,  $0.71. 
Ores :  Red  hematite  and  limonite  of  non-Bessemer  quality. 

Localities  and  geological  relations  of  the  Tennessee  ores. 

Other  producing  states  in  the  eastern  or  Appalachian  region  are : 

New  York :  Ores  chiefly  magnetites  from  Archean  rocks.    Also 

Cambro-Silurian.     (Fig.  38.) 
New  Jersey :  Magnetites  in  Archean  rocks. 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Kentucky. 

Relative  production  and  geological  relations  of  the  ores. 


J<S/a-£e-s  p-s^j/Lotugr  Hdderbero Limestone  P-.v--' 

Fig.  36.— Section  across  the  folds  of  the  Rich  Patch  iron  tract,  Alleghany  county,  Va. 
(Chance.)    The  left  end  of  the  section  is  north. 


Fig.  37.—  Section  through  an  open  cut  at  the  Rich  Patch  mines  in  Alleghany  county,  Va. 
(Chance.) 


Geologic  Atlas  of  the  U.S.  G.  S.    Ringold,  Sewanee,  Cleveland,  Chattanooga,  and 
Loudon  folios. 


/-r 


IRON. 


60 


Fig.  38.— Section  showing  the  geology  of  the  Cambro-Silurian  iron  ore  deposit  of  the 
Amenia  mine,  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.    (Putman.) 

//.  The  Lake  Superior  region. 

Ores:  hematites  and  magnetites  usually  of  Bessemer  quality. 
The  ores  occur  in  masses  associated  with  greatly  disturbed  schists, 
jaspers,  cherts,  and  quartzites,  of  pre-Cambrian  age. 

Soapstone  is  often  an  important  associated  rock. 

Importance  of  dikes  in  the  Gogebic  range. 
Extent  of  the  ore-bodies. 

Norrie  mines;  Lake  Angeline  mine ;  Biwabik  mine. 
Theories  regarding  the  origin  of  the  ores: 

Sedimentary  origin. 

Igneous  origin. 

Replacements. 


\Hanbvry  Slates      H  Potsdam  San  dst  one    %ffl&<jasp<ir  Slates 
\Qrt  WffA  Limfston?  Kii\l  Rm.l. 


Fig.  39. — Section  through  the  Cyclops  and  Norway  mines  in  the  Menominee  iron  region, 
Michigan.    The  north  end  of  the  section  is  to  the  right.     (Fulton.) 

The  principal  districts  or  "  ranges  "  are: 

a.  The  Menominee  range  is  mostly  in  Michigan,  forty  miles 

west  of  Lake  Michigan  along  the  Menominee  river,  near 
the  boundary  between  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 
Ores :  soft  hematites  of  Bessemer  and  non-Bessemer  qual- 
ity, containing  60  to  67  per  cent.  iron. 

b.  The  Marquette  range*  (Michigan) ;  best  developed  near  the 

towns  of  Marquette  and  Ishpeming. 
Ores :  magnetites,  and  hard  and  soft  hematites,  mostly  of 

Bessemer  quality. 
Geological  relations  and  occurrence. 

*  Preliminary  report  on  the  Marquette  iron-bearing  district  of  Michigan.  By  C.  R.  Van 
Hise  and  W.  S.  Bayley.  Fifteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Qeol.  Surv.,  1893-94.  Washing- 
ton, 1895.  pp.  477-650. 

The  Marquette  iron-bearing  district  of  Michigan.  By  C.  R.  Van  Hise,  W.  S.  Bayley,  and 
H.  JL.  Smyth.  Monograph  XXVIII,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Washington,  1897. 


62  IRON. 

c.  The  Penokee-Gogebic  range*  (called  the   Gogebic  range) 
passes  from  Wisconsin  into  Michigan  at  the  town  of 
Iron  wood. 
Ores :  soft  hematites  of  high  grade  Bessemer  quality ;  60 

to  66  per  cent.  iron.$ 

The  ore-bodies  are  concentrated  in  the  apices  of 
V-shaped  troughs  formed  by  southward  dipping 
dikes  cutting  northward  dipping  impervious 
strata.  They  are  intimately  associated  with 
cherts,  which  were  originally  heavily  charged 
with  carbonate  ore.  These  carbonate  ores  un- 
derwent chemical  change,  and  by  solution  and 
metasomatic  replacement  were  concentrated  in 
the  troughs  (Van  Hise). 


Ore 


Fig.  40.— Section  showing  the  usual  occurrence  of  iron  ore  in  the  Mesabi  range.    It  is 
below  the  glacial  drift  and  resting  upon  quartzite.    (Winchell.) 


d.  The  Vermillion  range:!  at  Vermillion  Lake  in  northeast 

Minnesota,  near  the  Canadian  border. 
Tower  and  Ely  are  the  principal  mining  towns. 
Ores :  mostly  hard  hematites  of  Bessemer  and  non-Besse- 
mer quality,  with  from  60  to  67  per  cent.  iron.  They 
are  closely  associated  with   schists,   "  jaspillites," 
and  quartzites.  The  ore  masses  are  in  sedimentary 
rocks  and  were  probably  concentrated  by  metaso- 
matic replacement. 

*The  Penokee  iron-bearing  series.    By  R.  D.  Irving  and  C.   R.  Van  Hise.    Monograph 

XIX,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.    (Contains  bibliography.)    Washington,  1892. 
The  iron  ores  of  the  Penokee-Gogebic  series  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.    By  C.  R.  Von 

Hise.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1889,  CXXXVII,  32-48. 
t  The  iron  range  of  Vermillion  Lake.    By  N.  H.  Winchell.    Fifteenth  an.  rep.  Geol.  and 

Nat.  Hist.  Surv.  Minnesota  for  1886,  217  et  seq. 
The  iron  ores  of  Minnesota.    By  N.  H.  Winchell  and  H.  V.  Winchell.    Bull.  VI,  Minn. 

Geol.  Surv.    Minneapolis,  1891. 


64 


e.  The  Mesabi  range  :*  southwest  of  the  Vermillion  range,  in 
Minnesota.  Its  first  ore  shipments  of  importance  were 
made  in  1893. 

Ores:  mostly  soft  hematites  of  Bessemer  quality.  The 
associated  rocks  are  slates,  quartzites,  and  jasper, 
all  covered  by  glacial  debris.  The  ore  masses  are 
probably  the  result  of  metasomatic  replacement. 
(Fig.  40.) 

Comparative  importance  of    the  districts  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region. 

///.   The  western  region. 

This  region  includes  the  iron-producing  States  west  of   the  Mis- 
souri river. 
Missouri:!  two  localities  have  been  of  considerable  importance. 

a.  Iron  Mountain :  hard  hematite  ores  about  a  porphyry  hill. 

Iron  boulders :  residuary  deposit,  from  the  weathering  of 

porphyry. 
Geological  horizon. 

b.  Pilot  Knob :  ore  hard  specular  hematite,  in  two  beds,  asso- 

ciated with  "  slate  "  and  porphyry  sheets. 
These  ores  are  thought  by  Nason  to  be  of  sedimentary  origin. 

(Figs.  41  to  45.) 
The  Cherry  Valley  ore  bank. 


Fig.  46. — Section  showing  the  relative  positions  of  the  country  rock  and  the  iron  ore  at 

the  Cherry  Valley  mine  in  Missouri.    The  iron  ore  was  mined  from 

the  pit  marked  "ore-body."    (Nason.) 

Other  western  iron  regions : 

Colorado  t  is  the  most  important  producer. 

Texas.  § 

Oregon. 

Deposit  near  Oswego.     (Fig.  47.) 


*The  iron-bearing  rocks  of  the  Mesabi  range.    By  J.  E.  Spurr.    Bui.  X,  Geol.  Surv.  Minn. 

Minneapolis,  1894. 
t  A  report  on  the  iron  ores  of  Missouri.    By  Frank  L.  Nason.    Geol.  Survey  of  Missouri, 

1892,  II.    Jefferson  City,  1892. 
Preliminary  report  on  the  iron  ores  and  coal  fields.  By  Raphael  Pumpelly.  Geol.  Surv. 

t  Iron  resources  of  Colorado.    By  Regis  Chauvenet.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1890, 

XVIII,  266-273. 
§  The  iron  ores  of  east  Texas.    By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.    First  ann.  rep.  Geol.  Surv. 

Texas  for  1889,  pp.  6&-86.    Austin,  1890. 


IRON. 


Fig.  41. — I.  Ideal  section  across  the  region  during  Archean  times. 


Fig.  42. — II.  The  same  as  I,  after  the  deposition  of  the  iron  ores, 
and  after  erosion. 


Fig.  43.— III.  The  same  as  II,  showing  the  growth  of  the  boulder  ore  beds. 


Fig.  44.— IV.  The  same  as  III,  after  being  covered  by  the  Cambrian  deposits 


Fig.  45. — V.  Section  across  the  same  region,  showing  the  present  conditions. 

A  GROUP  OF    IDEAL    SECTIONS   SHOWING   THE   PROBABLE   HISTORY   OF 

THE  IRON  ORES  OF  PILOT  KNOB,   MISSOURI, 

ACCORDING  TO  NASON. 


Fig.  47,— Section  through  the  Prosser  iron  mine,  near  Oswego,  Oregon.    (Putman.) 


68  IRON. 

Relative  importance  of  the  iron  regions  of  the  United  States : 

1.  Lake  Superior  region. 

2.  Appalachian  region. 

3.  Western  region. 

The  principal  iron  ore  producing  States  in  the  order  of  their  impor- 
tance in  1897:  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Alabama,  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  Tennessee,  New  York. 


GREAT  BRITAIN,  PRODUCTION 

&ERMANY 

UNITED  STATE* 

PENNSYLVANIA 

OHIO 

ILUNOIS 

NEW  YORK 

ALABAMA 


Fig.  48.— The  pig-iron  production  of  Great  Britain,  Germany,  the  United  States, 
the  various  States. 


and 


70  CHROMIUM. 


CHROMIUM.* 

Uses  of  chromium. 

In  manufacturing  chrome  steel  for  armor  plate,  shoes  and  dies  for 

stamp  mills,  and  burglar-proof  safes.t 
As  a  pigment  in  certain  greens  and  yellows. 
Refractory  material  for  furnace  linings,  i 

Ores  of  chromium1. 

Chromium  is  not  found  native,  but  occurs  principally  as  the  chromate 
of  iron,  or  chromite  (FeCr,O4),  chromium  sesquioxide  68,  iron 
protoxide  32. 

Occurrence  in  serpentine. 

Irregular  pockets. 

Probable  origin  of  the  chromium  segregations  found  in  serpentine. § 
Distribution  of  chromium  in  the  United  States. 

Appalachian  region. || 

California.  IT 

Chromium  imported  from  Asia  Minor.*  * 
Statistics  of  chromium  production. 

*  Notes  on  chromic  iron  ore.    By  J.  E.  Came.     Mineral  resources  [of  N.  S.  Wales],  no.  1. 

Sydney,  1898. 
t  Alloys  of  iron  and  chromium.    By  F.   L.   Garrison.    Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol. 

Survey,  pt.  Ill,  610-614. 

t  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  1897,  LXIII,  89,  136,  207,  375. 
?  Occurrence,  origin,  and  chemical  composition  of  chromite.    By  J.  H.  Pratt.    Eng.  and 

Min.  Jour.,  1898,  LXVI,  696. 
i  Chrome  in  the  southern  Appalachian  region.    By  William  Glenn.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  1895,  XXXVI.  481. 

Chromite  in  North  Carolina.    By  J.  H.  Pratt.    Eng.  and  Min  Jour.,  1899,  LXVII,  261. 
1i  Eleventh  rep.  California  State  Mineralogist,  1893-94,  pp.  35-38.    Thirteenth  rep.,  1896, 

48-50. 
**  Emery,  chrome  ore,  etc.,  in  the  Villayet  of  Aidin,  Asia  Minor.    By  W.  F.  A.  Thomae. 

Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  1898,  XXVIII,  215. 


40Q 


.350,  £ 


,300 


25Q 


Fig.  49.— Value  of  the  chromium  imported  into  the  United  States  since  1867. 


72  MANGANESE. 


MANGANESE.* 

The  uses  of  manganese* 

In  the  manufacture  of  steel. 

Spiegeleisen  has  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  manganese;  ferro-man- 
ganese  has  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  manganese. 

For  coloring  and  decolorizing  glass  and  pottery. 

Manufacture  of  bromine  and  chlorine. 
In  colors  for  calico  printing. 
For  making  dryers  used  in  painting. 
As  disinfectants. 
In  the  manufacture  of  oxygen. 
Leclanche  battery. 

Associated  minerals. 

Iron;  cobalt  and  nickel;  zinc;  silver;  and  others. 

The  ores  of  manganese. 
Oxides. 

Psilomelane  (MnO  =  77.85,  variable). 
Pyrolusite,  manganese  dioxide  (Mn02),  Mn  =  63.2. 
Braunite^TNln  =  69.68),  silica  10,  manganese  protoxide  11.7,  man- 
ganese sesquioxide  78.3. 
Wad,  or  bog  manganese.  ,  ,-i 

Carbonates.  <•' 
Silicates. 

Relative  importance  of  different  ores  in  the  production  of  manganese. 
The  oxides  are  the  most  important;  the  carbonates  are  next  in  impor- 
tance. 

Distribution  of  manganese. 
Geological. 

Manganese  nodules  dredged  from  the  deep  sea.t 
Manganese  is  found  in  all  geological  horizons. 
Principal  horizons  in  America. 

Cambrian;  Silurian;  Carboniferous. 
Probable  source  of  manganese. 

*  Manganese:  its  uses,  ores,  and  deposits.    By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.    Ann.  rep.  of  the 

Geol.  Survey  of  Ark.  for  1890,  I. 
Bibliography  of  the  chemistry  of  manganese.    Annals  of  the  N.  Y.  Lyceum  of  Natural 

History,  1876,  XI,  208-249. 

t  Alexander  Agassiz,  Science,  December  8,  1899,  pp.  834-835. 
Voyage  of  the  Challenger.    By  Wyville  Thomson.    II,  15.    New  York,  1878. 


/  / 


U.J.I**      fa  6-),-  (Jr. 


/  7  «  S 


74 


MANGANESE!. 


Geographical  (outside  of  the  United  States). 
Manganese  deposits  of  the  Caucasus.* 
The  manganese  deposits  of  Brazil. t     (Figs.  50,  51.) 
The  Panama,  Columbia,  deposits. t 

Manganese  of  the  United  States. 
The  Appalachian  region. 

Principal  districts :  Georgia,  Virginia,  Vermont. 

Other  localities  of  the  Appalachian  region. 
Principal  ores. 
Geological  horizons  and  occurrences  of  the  ores.     (Fig.  53.) 


Fig.  50.  -Section  across  the  cretaceous  basin  of  Bahia,  Brazil,  showing  the  geologic 
position  of  manganese  deposits. 


Fig.  51.— The  manganese  deposit  at  PedrasPretas, 
near  Bahia,  Brazil,  as  shown  by  shafts  and  pits. 


The  Arkansas  region. 
Batesville  region. 

Geological  horizon  of  the  de- 
posits. 

Origin  and  mode  of  occur- 
rence of  ores.      (Figs. 
52,  54.) 
Texas. 

California;  Nevada. 
The  Rocky  mountains. 
Relative  importance  of  the  different  regions  in  the  United  States. 


*  The  manganese  ore  industry  of  the  Caucasus.    By  Frank  Drake.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  1898.    XXVIII,  191-208. 
t  The  manganese  deposits  of  Bahia  and  Minas,  Brazil.    By  J.  C.  Branner.    Trans.  Amer. 

Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1899.    XXIX. 
t  The  manganese  deposits  of  the  Department  of  Panama,  Republic  of  Columbia.    By  E. 

J.  Chibas.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1897,  XXVII,  63-76. 


£.  c 


MANGANESE. 


Fig.  53.— Section  exposed  in  a  pit  at  the  Dobbins  mine  in  Georgia.    The  black  bands 
represent  manganese  ore,  and  the  shaded  portion  clays.    (Penrose.) 


Fig.  54.— Section  in  the  manganese  region  of 
North  Arkansas,  showing  the  formation 
of  manganese-bearing  clay  by  the 
decay  of  the  St.  Glair  lime- 
stone.   (Penrose.) 


Fig.  55. — The  production  and  imports  of 

manganese  ore  in  the  United 

States  since  1880. 


ORIGINAL  CONDITION  OF  THE    ROCKS. 


FIRST  STAGE  OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


SECOND  STAGE   OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


THIRD   STA6E  OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


OONE  CHERT  MANGANESE-BEARING  CLAY  LUJlZARD  LIMESTONE 

ST.CLAIR  LIMESTONE  LiiijSACCHARoiDAL  SANDSTONE 


Pig.  52. — Ideal  sections  showing  the  formation  of  manganese-bearing  clay  from  the  St.  Glair 
limestone  in  Arkansas.    (Ponrose.) 


78 


COPPER. 

The  uses  of  copper. 

For  conductors  of  electricity. 

Conductivity  of  silver  100,  of  copper  96. 

In  making  alloys,  brass,  bronze,  etc. 

Copper-plate  engraving,  calico  printing. 
Many  minerals  associated  with  copper. 

Silver  in  Montana. 

Tin  in  Cornwall. 

Sulphur  (combined). 

The  ores  of  copper. 

Native  copper  (Cu  =  100). 
Sulphides. 

Chalcocite,  cuprous  sulphide  (Cu  =  79.8,  S  =»  20.2). 
Chalcopyrite     (Cu  =  34.5,    Fe  =  30.5,   S  =  35.0).      CuFeS,    or 

Cu3S-Fe3Ss,  sometimes  with  silver  and  gold. 
Bornite,  crystallized  Cus  FeSs,  (Cu  =  55.5,  Fe  =  16.4,  S  =  28.1), 

proportions  varying. 
Oxides. 

Cuprite,  cuprous  oxide,  Cu,0  (Cu  =  88.8,  O  =  11.2). 
Tenorite,  cupric  oxide,  CuO  (Cu  =  79.8,  O  =  20.2). 
Carbonates. 

Malachite  (Cu  ==  57.4),  say  carbon  dioxide  19.9,  cupric  oxide  71.9, 

water  8.2. (c^  ,  o  V).  C^iG  0SL 

Azurite^Cu  =  55.22),  Co2  25.6,  cupric  oxide  69.2,  water  5.2. 
Silicates.        C<-<.  V  t'4.  1.  '+5.  C 

Chrysocolla,(Cu  =  36.1  -f  silica  and   water),  silica  34.3,   copper 
oxide  45.2,  water 
20.5. 
Relative  values. 

The  occurrences  of  copper. 
In  fissure  veins. 
In  irregular  bodies. 
Disseminated   through  the 
rocks. 

The  distribution  of  copper. 
Geological  distribution. 
It  occurs  in  rocks  of  all 


Ore 


Fig.  56.— Cross-section  of  the  south  vein  of  the 

Rio  Tinto  copper  mine  in  Spain. 

(De  Launay.) 


poJoi^,- 

,  qh-  ' M" 


.   f&^jUL. 

/  9  v% 


-il^ 


«--  - 


80  COPPEH. 

Keweenawan  age  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper-bearing  rocks 
Ages  of  other  deposits. 
Geographical  distribution. 

Copper  in  Spain  ;  the  Rio  Tinto  mines. 

Austria. 

Prussia. 

The  Mansfeld  mines. 
Great  Britain. 

The  Cornwall  mines. 
Russia. 

The  Ural  district. 
Japan. 

New  South  Wales.* 
Chili. 

Absence  of  a  home  market. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  COPPER  REGIONS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Most  of  the  copper  produced  in  America  comes  from  three  regions:  (1) 
the  Lake  Superior  region  of  Michigan  ;  (2)  the  Butte  City  region  of  Mon- 
tana; (3)  the  Arizona  region.  /v 


/.  The  Lake  Superior  region,  Michigan.  t 

Keweenawan  age  of  the  ore-bearing  rocks. 
Nature  of  the  ores:  native  copper  ramifying  the  rocks. 
Character  of  the  ore  deposits. 
Veins. 

Bedding  planes. 
Impregnations. 

The  copper-bearing  conglomerate. 
The  copper-bearing  amygdaloids. 
Depth  of  the  mines,  4,700  feet  +.i 

//.  The  Butte  region  of  Montana. 
Age  and  character  of  the  rocks. 

*  The  copper-mining  industry    ...    in  New  South  Wales.     By  J.  E.  Came.    Sydney, 

1899. 
t  Report  of  the  geology  and  topography  of  Lake  Superior  land  district,  in  the  state  of 

Michigan.    By  J.  W.  Foster  and  J.  D.  Whitney.    Part  I,  copper  lands.    Wash- 

ington, 1850. 
The  copper-bearing  rocks  of  Lake  Superior.    By  R.  D.  Irving.    Monograph  V,  U.  S. 

Geol.  Survey.    Washington,  1883.    (Bibliography.) 
For  bibliography  of  the  history  of  mining  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  see  Twenty-third 

ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Minn,  for  1894,  148-155,  and  Bui.  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  VII, 

133-157.    Cambridge,  1880. 
The  origin  and  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper  deposits.    By  M.  E. 

Wadsworth.    Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  189,  XXVII,  669-696. 
t  Amer.  Jour.  Science,  CL,  503. 


fiyix^/\j2Xj£<L_.  QJ    HA^IA^JL^ 

_}  'aJuul^^  ft*  7-  ^- 

$'  /&L*M'3>+^  w.( n**-n$. 


>    ™*y 


COPPER. 


Fie  57  —Section  of  the  Globe  copper  mine,  Maricopa  county,  Arizona.    The  limestone 
is  of  Carboniferous  age.    (Wendt.) 


n^S^  Porphyry 


Fig.  58.—  Section  across  Longfellow  Hill  and  Chase  Creek  Canyon,  Longfellow  copper 
mine,  Clifton  district,  Arizona.    (Wendt.) 


Fig.  59.— Section  of  Metcalf  Hill,  Clifton  copper  basin,  Arizona,    (Wendt.) 


UJ  ^n  . 


3-  -7  U-    j 
e-^,     ^W^ 

\rt~t  -  *1  7  ,   A^v  .    3 


J 


-  3 


^ 


.      1          , 

B  ^  ,     MA^  -  1  s5T  )  - 


.  3  ,      ixv-0  .    Y  5 


.  ( 


I7U. 


84  COPPER. 

Nature  of  the  Butte  ores. 

Copper  sulphide  and  silver. 

The  upper  400  feet  leached  of  copper  ;  the  lode  first  worked  for 
silver. 

Bornite  and  chalcocite  below. 
Character  of  the  deposits. 

In  fissure  veins. 

III.  The  Arizona  copper  region.* 

Three  copper-producing  districts  in  southeastern  Arizona. 

1.  The  Globe  district. 

Character  and  occurrence  of  the  ores. 

2.  The  Clifton  district.  /*- 

Character  and  occurrence  of  the  ores. 

3.  The  Bisbee  district. 

Character  and  occurrence  of  the  ores. 

Other  copper  districts  of  the  United  States. 

New  Mexico. 

Calif  ornia.t 

Copperopolis  ;  Iron  Mountain  mines  at  Keswick. 

Utah. 

Colorado. 

Wyoming. 

Missouri  :  chalcopyrite  with  chert  in  Cambrian  magnesian  limestones. 

New  Jersey. 

Tennessee,  Vermont.  t 

Relative  importance  of  the  different  regions  in  the  United  States. 
American  copper  mines  compared  with  foreign  mines. 
Effect  of  metallurgical  processes  upon  cost  of  production. 

Importance  of  the  electrolytic  process. 

*  The  copper  ores  of  the  southwest.    By  Arthur  F.  Wendt.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 

1887,  XV.  25-77. 
The  Copper  Queen  mine,  Arizona.    By  James  Douglas.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 

The  mines  of  Yavapai  county,  Arizona.    By  J.  F.  Blandy.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  June, 

1897,  LXIII,  632. 
t  Copper  resources  of  California.    By  Herbert  Lang.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  April.  1899, 

LXVII,  442,  470. 
J  The  pyrites  deposits  of  the  Alleghanies.    By  A.  Wendt.    School  of  Mines  Quarterly, 

VII,  154-188,  218-235,  301-323.     New  York,  1886. 
Copper  deposits  of  Vermont.    By  H.  A.  Wheeler.    School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  IV,  219. 


^t. 


. 

-  *• 


3     ^o,  t, 


6  &  1.. 


d 


A^JLo^i^     &*^A^ 

,7,   /3^e_,  "      £^*-JO 


Fig.  60.— Comparative  output  of  copper  in  the  chief  copper-producing  countries  since 
1878. 


Total  Production 
±±±t  Arizona  Production 
*b  Lake  Superior  Production 
H  Montana 

Value  of  Exports 


000000 


000000 


5  300000 


000000 


000000 


000000 


Fig.  61.— Statistics  of  the  production  of  copper  in  the  United  States  since  1850,  and  the 
value  of  copper  exported  since  1864. 


TIN. 


TIN.* 
Uses  of  tin. 

Manufacture  of  alloys. 
Pewter. 

Bronze-  <?          f  - 

Britannia  metal. 

Gun  metal. 

Bell  metal. 
As  tin  plate. 
Tin  foil. 
Calico  printing. 

Ores. 

Tin  is  mined  only  as  Cassiterite  (SnO),  tin  78.67.  oxygen  21.33. 
Stannite  (perhaps   CujSjFeSjSnS;,),  tin   27.5,  copper  29.5,  iron  13.1, 
sulphur  29.9.     It  sometimes  contains  zinc.     (Sn  27,  Cu  30,  Fe 

13,  S  30.) 

Occurrence. 

Tin  ores  are  found  in,  or  associated  with,  granites,  and  as  stream  tin. 
The  stream  deposits,  derived  from  the  granites,  are  the  chief  source  of 
supply. 

Distribution  of  tin. 
Geological. 
Geographical. 

The  tin  deposits  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  England. 

Mode  of  occurrence  of  the  ore.t 
Tin  deposits  elsewhere  in  Europe. 
Prussia. 
Russia. 

The  tin  of  the  East  Indies. 
The  Malay  Peninsula. J 
Islands  of  Banca  and  Biliton  off  Sumatra. 

*  Tin.    By  W.  de  L.  Benedict.    The  Mineral  Industry,  I,  439-462. 

t  A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.    By  J.  A.  Phillips  and  Henry  Louis.    Tin,  pp.  28-31,  197- 

231.    London,  1896. 
On  the  great  flat  lode  south  of  Redruth,  etc.    By  C.  Le  Neve  Foster.    Quarterly  Journal, 

Geol.  Soc.,  London,  1878,  XXXIV,  640-659. 
1  Tin  deposits  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula.    By  P.  Doyle.    Journal  Geol.  Soc.  London, 

1879,  XXXV,  229-232. 
Mines  detain  du  royaume  de  Pgrak.    Par  J.  de  Morgan.    Annales  des  Mines,  8me  ser., 

IX,  408-442. 
The  alluvial  tin  deposits  of  Siak,  Sumatra.    By  Charles  M.  Rolker.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  1891,  XX,  50-84. 


.  &•*. 


/  C- 


;     L, 


90  TIN. 

Australia:  Queensland,  Victoria,  and  New  South  Wales. 

China. 

Bolivia.    At  Potosi  tin  is  a  by-product  of  silver. 

Argentina. 

Japan. 

Tin  in  America.  ^ 

Mexico  produces  small  quantities  of  tin. 

The  United  States  at  present    produces   no   tin.     The  two  principal 
regions  where  tin  is  known  in  this  country  are  the  Southern 
California  region  and  the  Black  Hills  region  of  South  Dakota. 
Although  small  quantities  of  tin  are  found  elsewhere,  these  are 
the  only  localities  where  the  deposits  promise  to  be  of  any  value. 
Tin  of  the  Black  Hills.* 
Harney's  Peak. 
Mode  of  occurrence. 
Tin  of  Southern  California,  t 
Temescal  mines. 

Mode  of  occurrence :  in  granite  intrusions  in  slate  and  schist. 
Other  occurrences  of  tin  in  the  United  States. 
Statistics  of  tin. 

*  Tin  ore  deposits  of  the  Black  Hills.    By  W.  P.  Blake.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng  . 

1884-85,  XIII,  691-696. 
Eleventh  census,  1890,  pp.  257-264. 
fFourth  annual  report  of  the  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  1884.    By  H.  G.  Hanks. 

pp.  115-123. 
The  tin  deposits  at  Temescal,  Southern  California.    By  H.  W.  Fairbanks.    Am.  Jour. 

Sci.,  1897,  CLIV,  39-42. 


30,00 


2500 


2.0,00 


HI  Do  OD  *Q 

I       1       §       § 

Fig.  62.— Value  of  the  imports  of  tin  in  the  United  States  since  1867. 


92  COBALT    AND    NICKEL. 


COBALT  AND  NICKEL.* 

Use 8  of  cobalt. 

As  a  pigment  for  blue  paints  and  porcelain. 
Chemical  uses. 

Uses  of  nickel. 

Nickel  plating. 

German  silver,  an  alloy  of  nickel, t  copper,  and  zinc. 

In  some  kinds  of  steel. 

Effect  of  nickel  on  steel.* 

Coins. 

Cobalt  and  nickel  are  always  associated  in  nature. 
Most  cobalt  is  a  by-product  of  nickel. 

The  ores  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 

Linnseite  (Co  57.9,  S  42.1)  is  a  cobalt  sulphide  with  some  of  the  cobalt 
replaced  by  nickel. 
Nine  analyses  have  the  sulphur  ranging  from  39  to  43,  cobalt  from 

11  to  45,  and  nickel  from  12  to  42. 
Millerite  (Ni  64.6,  S  35.3)  is  a  nickel  sulphide.        '  5 
Niccolite  (Ni  43.9,  As  56.1)  is  a  nickel  arsenide.  H!  O.° 
Garnierite  is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  nickel  and  magnesia,  variable.  ~v'A'x 
Thirteen  analyses  give  silica  35.45  to  50.15,  nickel  oxide  10.20  to 
45.15,  magnesia  oxide  2.47  to  21.70,  water  5.27  to  21.65. 

Distribution  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 

The  most  important  cobalt-nickel  bearing  regions  of  the  world  are  the 
Sudbury  region  (Ontario,  Canada),  New  Caledonia,  and  Norway 
and  Sweden. 

1.  The  New  Caledonia  region,  about  1,000  miles  east  of  Australia.^ 
The  ore  was  discovered  in  1867 ;  the  mines  worked  since  1874. 
Norway  and  Sweden. 
The  other  foreign  regions  are  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Hungary. 

*  Mineral  Industry,  1892,  I,  343-358;  VI,  495-506. 

t  Alloys  of  iron  and  nickel.    By  Robert  A.  Hadfield.    The  Inst.  Civ.  Engs.    London,  1899. 

I  Nickel-steel  ;  a  synopsis  of  experiment  and  opinion.    By  D.  H.  Browne.    Trans.  Amer. 

Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1899,  XXIX. 
g  Minerals  de  nickel  (de  la  Nouvelle  Cale~donie).    Par  E.  Heurteau.    Ann.  des  Mines, 

7me  ser.   IX,  390-398. 
||  The  Sudbury  ore  deposits.    By  E.  D.  Peters,  Jr.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1889-90, 

XVIII,  278-289. 
The  Sudbury  nickel  mines  in  Ontario,    By  A.  M.  Charles.     Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Feb., 

1899,  LXVII,  144. 


f  i  u- 


94 


COBALT    AND    NICKKL. 


Cobalt  and  nickel  in  North  America. 

2.  The  Sudbury  (Ontario)  region  of  Canada  ||  is  the  only  American  re- 
gion important  in  the  production  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 
The  ore  is  in  Huronion  gneiss;  it  contains  but  little  cobalt. 
Cobalt  and  nickel  regions  of  the  United  States. 

Cobalt  and  nickel  occurs  in  several  localities  in  the  United  States, 

but  these  have  so  far  proved  of  no  importance. 
At  the  mine  la  Motte  of  Missouri  some  nickel  is  obtained  in  smelt- 
ing the  lead. 
Pennsylvania. 

Gap  Mine,*  Lancaster  county,  was  worked  for  copper  prior  to 

1852;  mine  now  about  exhausted. 
Relative  importance  of  different  regions. 


Fig.  63. — The  nickel  output  of  the  chief  nickel-producing  countries. 

:  The  nickel  mine  at  Lancaster  Gap,  Pa.    By  J.  F.  Kemp.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  1894,  XXIV,  620-633.    (Has  bibliography  of  the  Gap  mines.) 


96 


ZINC. 

Uses  of  zinc. 

As  an  alloy  with  copper. 

Brass. 

White  metal. 

Imitation  gold  foil. 

Zinc  white  (ZnO)  is  of  much  use  for  paint. 
Galvanizing  nails,  iron  pipe,  sheet  iron  for  roofing. 
Electric  batteries. 

The  importance  of  zinc  as  compared  with  iron,  copper,  and  other 
metals. 

The  occurrence  of  zinc. 

Zinc  usually  occurs  in  nature  associated  with  lead,  and  often  with 
copper  and  silver. 

Ores  of  zinc. 

Sphalerite  (Zn  67,  S  33). 

Common  names:  blende,  jack,  black-jack,  rosin  jack. 
Smithsonite  (ZnO  64.8,  C02  35.2),  51.4  metallic  zinc.  : 
Calamine  (Zn  54.2,  Si02  25  +  water).   7.^  0  rsi^  £;  o  «, 
Zincite  (Zn  80.3,  0  19.7).    . 
Franklinite  (ZnO,  varies  from  16  to  23  +). 

^Willemite  (Zn  58.5,  SiO2  27.1).    -  /      Lj} 

Comparative  importance  of  the  ores.  f\    v    ^Z'-v^L^     ' 

Methods  of  preparing  and  treating  the  ores. 
Hand-picking. 
Crushing. 
Jigging.* 
Roasting. 
Manufactured  as 

Spelter. 

Oxide  for  paint. 

Distribution. 

Although  zinc  has  a  very  wide  distribution,  the  zinc  of  the  commerce 
of  the  world  comes  from  comparatively  few  regions.  (See  sta- 
tistics below.) 

*  The  concentration  of  ores.    By  R.  H.  Richards.    Technology  Quarterly,  1898,  XI,  54-64. 


1-L 


,  J. 


-^M. 


f  t, 


r-  « 


Geological  distribution. 

Zinc  has  a  very  general  geologic  distribution,  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  zinc  mined  comes  from  Silurian  and 
Lower  Carboniferous  limestones  and  cherts. 

Geographical  distribution. 

Zinc-producing  regions  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

1.  Silesia.  4.  Great  Britain. 

2.  Belgium.  5.  France. 

3.  United  States.          6.  Spain. 

Zinc  of  the   United  States. 

There  are  two  principal  regions  in  the  United  States. 
The  eastern  or  Appalachian  region. 
The  western  or  Mississippi  valley  region. 
The  eastern  region. 

New  Jersey,  Sussex  county. 

The  ores  occur  in  Lower  Silurian  and  older  limestones. 

The  ores  are  the  red  oxides:    Franklinite,   Willernite,  and 

Zincite. 
Pennsylvania. 

Ores  from  brecciated  Chazy  magnesian  limestone. 
The  ores  are  calamine  above  and  sphalerite  below. 
Virginia;  ore  is  calamine  in  crystalline  limestone. 
New  Hampshire. 
Eastern  Tennessee.  ^ 

At  Mossy  Creek  the  ore  is  sphalerite  in  brecciated  magnesian 

limestone. 

The  surface  ores  first  worked  were  carbonates. 
The  Mississippi  valley  region. 

The  two  principal  zinc-producing  districts  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley are  the  Illinois- Wisconsin  district  and  the  Missouri- 
Kansas  district. 

The  Illinois-Wisconsin  district.* 
Extent. 

The  nature  of  the  ores. 
Modes  of  occurrence.     (Figs.  64  to  67.) 

Relative  occurrence  of  lead  and  zinc. 
Geological  horizons. 
The  Missouri-Kansas  zinc  fields. t   ^ 

*The  ore  deposits  of  southwest  Wisconsin.     By  T.  C.  Chamberlin.  Geol.  of  Wisconsin, 

1873-79,  IV,  pt.  IV,  365-568. 
tThe  mining  and  metallurgy  of  zinc.    By  F.  L.  Clerc.    Min.  Resources  of    the  U.  S.  for 

1883,  PP-  346-386. 
The  lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.    By  Arthur  Winslow.    Geol  Survey  of  Mo.,  vol. 

VII.    Jefferson  City,  1894.    (This  work  contains  a  bibliography  of  lead  and  zinc.) 

An  abstract  of  this  report  is  published  in  the  Trans.  Amer.  Tnst.  Min.  Eng.,  1894, 

XXIV,  634. 
Lead  and  zinc  mining  industry  of  southwest  Missouri  and  southeast-Kansas.    By  J.  R. 

Holibaugh.    New  York,  1895. 


,    -      ft*     ^LA^UO    fiAs^r*-"^*  7 

^H^.    yl~,,    ^.?^  ^/f/"-f' *' 

/ 


100 


ZINC. 


t£*X;C^     Soil   and  Residuary  Clay 


Lower    Galena 

^i:   Blud  Limestone 
Buff  Limestone 
., St.  Pet e r's  Sandstone 


Fig.  64.— Ideal  section  in  the  lead  and  zinc  region  of  Wisconsin,  showing  the  forms  of 
ore  deposits  at  the  different  horizons.    (Chamberlin.) 


Fig.  65.— Ideal  section  through  "  flats  and  pitches  "  of  the  lead  and  zinc  region  of  Wis 
consin.    (Chamberlin.) 


Fig.  66.— Section  showing  the  zinc  ore  de-        Fig.  67.— Section  of  a  mine  in  this  ore  de 
posit  in  the  Atkinson  range  in  Wis-  posit  (shown  in  Fig.  66)  after  it  is 

consin.    (Chamberlin.)  worked  out.    (Chamberlin.) 


, 

* 


Their  extent. 

Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Arkansas. 

Nature  of  the  ores. 

Geological  horizons. 

Modes  of  occurrence.    (Figs.  68-70.) 
The  Iowa  zinc  deposits.* 
Zinc  found  in  the  "silver  mines. 

Effect  of  zinc  on  gold  and  silver  ores. 
Probable  origin  of  zinc  deposits. t    ^ 

Relative  importance  of  the  zinc  regions  of  the  United  States. 
Relative  importance  of  the  zinc  regions  of  the  world. 


Fig.  68. — Section  across  the  St.  Joe  fault,  near  St.  Joe,  Searcy  county,  Arkansas.    The 
mines  are  on  the  fault. 


Fig.  69.— General  map  of  the  lead  and  zinc  mines  of  North  Aurora,  Lawrence  county, 

Missouri,  showing  the  linear  arrangement  of  the  ore-bodies. 

Scale,  3  inches  =  1  mile.  (Winslow.) 

*  Lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Iowa.    By  A.  G.  Leonard.    Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  1896,  VI,  11-66 . 
t  Origin  of  the  Iowa  lead  and  zinc  deposits.    By  A.  G.  Leonard.    Amer.  Geologist,  1895, 


104 


ZINC. 


Fig.  70. — Map  of  a  portion  of  the  Eagle  lead  and  zinc  mines  in  Jasper  county,  Missouri, 

showing  the  linear  distribution  of  the  ores.    Scale,  1  inch  =  800  ft. 

(Winslow.) 


o  o 

Fig.  71.— The  zinc  production  of  the  United  States  since  1873. 


Fig.  72.— Comparative  production  of 

zinc  in  the  chief  zinc-mining 

countries  since  1880. 


106  LEAD. 


LEAD. 

Uses  of  lead. 

Paint  :  white  lead  is  lead  carbonate,  some  is  lead  oxide,  and  a  white 

lead  sulphate  is  now  made  for  paint. 
Pigments  :  certain  yellows  and  red  lead. 
Alloys  of  lead. 

Pewter.   ^^    »   ' 

Organ-pipe  metal.;.  ^ 

Solder.    C 

Te  mtal. 


Babbit  metal  and  other  anti-friction  alloys.     - 

Shot.     ^<^<y 

Pipes  for  plumbing;  importance  of  ductility. 
Sheet  lead  for  roofing. 
Glass  making. 
Medicine  (acetate,  carbonate,  iodide,  etc.). 

Associations. 

Lead  is  usually  associated  with  zinc  or  silver.    The  greater  part  of  the 
lead  of  commerce  is  mined  as  a  by-product  of  silver. 

The  ores  of  lead. 

Galena  (Pb  86.6,  S  13.4).     '• 

Argentiferous  galena  from  the  silver  mines. 

Non-argentiferous  galena  of  the  Mississippi  valley  region. 
Cerussite  (PbO  83.5,  C02  16.5),  known  as  "dry  bone."  ?. 

Galena  and  cerussite  are  usually  found  together. 
Anglesite  (PbO  73.6,  and  SOS,  26.4.)    f- 

Treatment  of'theores^ 

fr-4*JLfat~JJS    pjr  Wo  0* 
Modes  of  occurrence  of  lead  ores  A 

In  veins. 
In  cavities. 

Distribution  of  lead. 

Lead  has  a  very  wide  geologic   and  geographic  distribution.     Most 
countries  yield  some  lead,  but  Spain  is  the  most  important  lead 
producer. 
Geologic  distribution. 

Lead  is  confined  to  rocks  of  no  particular  age,  but  most  of  the 
lead  of  commerce  is  taken  from  Paleozoic  rocks. 

*  The  metallurgy  of  lead.    By  H.  O.  Hofman.    New  York,  1894. 

The  metallurgy  of  lead  and  stiver.    Part  I,  Lead.  By  Henry  F.  Collins.    London,  1899.'' 
t  Figures  illustrating  the  occurrence  of  lead  ores  will  be  found  under  the  subjects  of 
zinc  and  silver. 


IDS  LEAD. 

Geographic  distribution  (principal  producers  only).* 
Spain. 

United  States. 
Germany. 
Mexico. 

Australia  (New  South  Wales). 
Great  Britain. 
Italy. 

Lead  regions  of  the   United  States. 

There  are  three  principal  lead  regions  in  the  United  States:  (1)  the 
Appalachian  region;  (2)  the  Mississippi  valley  region;  (3)  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region. 
The  Appalachian  region. 

Ore  in  veins  in  metamorphic  rocks,  from  Georgia  to  Maine;  of  no 

importance  now. 
The  Mississippi  region.! 

Wisconsin  district ;  t    principal  mines  about  Mineral  Point  and 

Plattville. 
Iowa  distinct;  principal  mines  about  Dubuque.? 

Galena    associated    with    zinc    in  Lower    Silurian    (Galena) 

limestone;  in  veins,  cavities,  "flats,"  and  "pitches." 
%     Illinois. 

Nature  and  modes  of  occurrence  similar  to  that  of  the  Wis- 
consin-Iowa district ;  in  Galena  limestone. 
Missouri,  Kansas,  ||  and  Arkansas. 

Galena,  in  veins,  cavities,  and  scattered  masses  in  Paleozoic 
limestone,  from  the  Cambrian  to  the  Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous, mostly  the  latter.     The  ore  is  often   associated  with 
zinc. 
The  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Most  of  the  lead  produced  at  present  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  where  it  is  taken  as  a  by- 
product of  silver  from  argentiferous  galena. 

*  Lead  and  zinc  mining  in  foreign  countries.  Special  Consular  Reports,  vol.  X.  Wash- 
ington, 1894. 

t  The  upper  Mississippi  lead  region.    By  J.  D.  Whitney.    Albany,  N.  Y.,  1862. 

I  Geology  and  topography  of  the  lead  region.  By  Moses  Strong.  Geology  of  Wisconsin, 
1873-77,  vol.  II,  pt.  IV,  and  vol.  IV,  pt.  IV.  The  ore  deposits  of  southwest  Wiscon- 
sin. By  T.  C.  Chamberlin. 

I  Report  on  the  geology  of  Iowa.    By  C.  A.  White.    Vol.  II,  Des  Moines,  1870,  p.  339. 

II  The  lead  and  zinc  region  of  southwest  Missouri.    By  Adolf  Schmidt  and  Alexander 

Leonhard.    Geol.  Survey  of   Mo.,  1873-74,  vol.  I,  381-50.— Same  vol.,  503-577.    The 

lead  region  of  central  Missouri.    By  Adolf  Schmidt.— Same  vol.,  602-637.     Lead 

mines  of  southeast  Missouri.    By  J.  R.  Gage. 
Lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.    By  Arthur  Winslow.    Trans.   Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng.,  1894,  XXIV,  634-931. 
Lead  and  zinc  deposits.    By  Arthur  Winslow.    Mo.  Geol.  Survey,  vols.  VI  and  VII. 

Jefferson  City,  1894. 


i*»  r 


110 


LEAD. 


Colorado. 

Leadville  district.* 

Lead-silver  ores  oxidized  at 
the  surface,  in  Carbon- 
iferous limestone  asso- 
ciated with  porphyry. 
Sulphide  ores  at  depths. 
Aspen.    Lead-silver  ores  oxidized 
at  the  surface,  in  Car- 
boniferous limestone. 
Other  Colorado  districts. 
Montana.    Lead  produced  from  argen- 
tiferous galena  in  silver  mining. 
Utah.     The  silver  mines  yield  much 

lead  as  a  by-product. 
Idaho. 

The  Co3ur  d'Alene  district. 

Lead-silver  ores,   in    highly 
faulted    and    folded 
quartzites  and  schists. 
New  Mexico. 

Lead  produced  from  argentifer- 
ous galena  in  silver  mining. 
Magdalena  district. 

Non-argentiferous  lead  ores. 
Nevada.    Lead  a  by-product  in  silver 

mining. 
Relative  importance  of  the~different 

regions  of  the  United  States. 
Lead  was  first  smelted  in  the  United 
States  in  1825 ;  in  1872  the  sil- 
ver-lead ores  came  into  market. 

*  Geology  and  mining  industry  of  Leadville. 
By  S.  F.  Emmons.  Monograph  XII. 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.  Washington,  1886. 


Fig.  73.— The  lead  production  of  the  principal  lead-producing  States  since  1830. 


UNITED  STATES 

SFMN 

GERMANY  -- 
MEXICO  — 
GREAT  BWTAIN- 


Fig.  74. — The  lead  output  of  the  chief  lead-pro- 
ducing countries  since  1876. 


112 


SILVER. 

The  uses  of  silver. 
Coinage. 
In  alloys. 
Table  ware. 

For  jewelry  and  ornamental  purposes. 
In  photography  and  medicine. 

Ores  of  silver. 

Native  silver  (usually  an  alloy  with  copper,  gold,  or  bismuth). 

Argentite.     Silver  glance  (Ag.2S),  (Ag  87.1 ,  S  12.9). 

Pyrargyrite.     Ruby  silver  (Ag8  SbS3  or  3  Ag2  SSb2  S3),  (Ag  59.8,  Sb 

22.5,  S  17.7). 
Proustite.     Light  ruby   silver  (3  Ag2S,  As^  or  Ag3  As^),  (Ag  65.5, 

As  15.1,  S  19.4). 
Stephanite.     Brittle  silver;  black  silver  (Ag5  SbS4  or  5  Ag2S  Sb2S3), 

(Ag68.5,  Sbl5.3,  S  16.2). 

Cerargyrite.     Horn  silver,  silver  chloride  (Ag  75.3,  Cl  24.7). 
Bromyrite  (Ag  57.4,  Br  42.6). 

Embolite  (49  per  cent.  AgBr  to  51  per  cent.  AgCl).  - 
Argentiferous  galena  (lead  and  silver  in  varying  proportions). 
Argentiferous  tetrahedrite,  or  freibergite,  a  sulphide  of  copper  and 

antimony,  contains  varying  proportions  of  silver. 
Relative  importance  of  the  different  ores. 

Distribution. 
Geologic. 

Silver  occurs  in  rocks  of  all  ages. 
Geographic. 

Silver  has  a  very  general  geographic  distribution,  but  few 
countries  not  having  it  in  some  quantity.  The  following 
are  the  most  important  silver-producing  countries  in  the 
order  of  their  importance :  United  States,  Mexico,  Austral- 
asia, Bolivia,  Germany,  Spain,  Peru,  France,  Chile,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, Central  America,  Japan. 

SILVER  OF  THB  UNITED  STATES. 

The  silver  of  the  United  States  comes  almost  entirely  from  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river:  Colorado,  Montana,  Utah, Nevada, and  Idaho  producing 
over  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 


V^<,  rt 

^A^vxA^v          ^*AxA, 

' 


V 

u  T        ' 


<u~    a^--^ 

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y^ 


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114 


SILVER. 


Colorado.* 
Leadville.t 

Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  passing  into  sulphides  at  depths ; 

in  faulted  Carboniferous  limestone. 
Probable  mode  of  formation  of  the  deposits. 

Aspen 4 

Ores:  oxidized  lead-silver;  in  highly  folded  and  faulted  Car- 
boniferous limestones. 


E?>?  Whi-tt  Porphyry 
Lime'Stoni 


\nn  Mat  trial       H-^xl  Grey  Porphyry 
Whdti  Limestone, 


"Fig^i—SectionTon  the  "gold  orejchute"  of  Iron  Hill,  Leadville,  Colorado.    (Blow.) 


Fig.  76.— Northwest-southeast  vertical  section  through  Spar  ridge  and  Vallejo  gulch,  in 
the  Aspen  district,  Colo.    Washington  shaft  is  shown  near  Vallejo  gulch. 


*  Geology  of  Colorado  and  western  ore  deposits.    By  Arthur  Lakes.    Denver,  1893. 

t  Geology  and  mining  industry  of  Leadville,  Colorado.    By  S.  F.  Emmons.    Monograph 

XII,  U.  S.  Geol  Survey. 
J  Geology  of  the  Aspen  mining  district,  Colorado.    By  J.  E.  Spurr.    Monograph  XXXI, 

U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.    Washington,  1898. 


116 


SILVER. 


Creede. 

Ores :  oxides  in  fissure  veins  in  igneous  rocks. 
Cripple  Creek.* 
Other  Colorado  districts :  Eagle  River,  Ten  Mile,  Monarch,  Rico, 

Red  Mountain,  Custer  county. t 
Montana. 

Butte  City  region,  i 

Ores:  native  silver  and  galena  in  veins  with  quartz  gangue 

containing  some  Mn ;  country  rock  of  granite. 
Granite  Mountain. 

Ores :   ruby  silver  associ- 
ated with  gold  in  veins 
in  gray  granite. 
Other   Montana  silver  re- 
gions   are:    Cook   City, 
Flint  Creek,  Glendale. 
Utah. 

Big  and  Little  Cottonwood 
Canons.  Ores:  oxidized 
lead  -  silver ;  in  bedded 
veins  in  Carboniferous 
limestone. 

Beaver  county.  Oxidized 
lead-silver  ores  occur  in 
contact  fissures  (Horn 
Silver  mine) ;  in  cham- 
bers in  limestone  (Cave 
mine) ;  in  fissure  veins 
(Carbonate  mine). 
Summit  county.  Ores  in 
veins  through  quartzite 
(Ontario  mine). 
Other  silver  regions  of  Utah 
are  Bingham  Canon,  the 
Mercurdistrict,§  the  Tin- 


Fig.  78.— Section  showing  faults  and  ore-bodies 

in  the  Bushwhacker-Park  Regent 

mine,  Aspen.    (Spurr.) 


tic  district,  Silver  Reef. 


*  Geology  and  mining  industries  of  the  Cripple  Creek  district,  Colorado.    By  W.  Cross 

and  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.    Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  13-309. 

Washington,  1895. 
t  The  mines  of  Custer  county,  Colorado.    By  S.  F.  Emmons.    Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 

Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II.,  405-172.    Washington,  1896. 
t  Silver  mining  and  milling  at  Butte,  Montana.    By  W.  P.  Blake.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  XVI,  38-45. 
Notes  on  the  geology  of  Butte,  Montana.    By  S.  F.  Emmons.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng..  XVI,  49-62. 
<•  Economic  geology  of  the  Mercur  mining  district,  Utah.    By  Emmons  and  Spurr.    Six^ 

teenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  343-455, 


118 


SILVER. 


MESTONE  v  COARSE  »ANOSTO«  Fl«  GRAINED 

O  CUART2  fjf  HHOOOCHHOSITf.       (SS)  ORE          I 

ENTERPRISE    MINE,"  COLORADO. 


Fig.  79. — Section  exposed  in  a  breast  of  the  Enterprisi 
Colorado.     (Rickard.) 
Nevada. 

The   Comstock  lode,*   the 

largest  silver-gold  deposit 

ever  discovered,  is  a  great 

fissure  vein,   four   miles 

long,     several     hundred 

feet  broad,  with  branch- 
ing ends;    it    follows    a 

fault  line;   the   greatest 

displacement    is  at    the 

centre,  where  it  is  nearly 

3000  ft.    The  mines  reach 

a  depth  of  about  3000  ft. 


mine  at  Rico,  Dolores  county. 


Fig.  80.—  East-west  section  through  the  Com- 
stock lode  in  Nevada,  showing  the  posi- 
tion of  two  of  the  ore-bodies,  and 
of  the  Sutro  tunnel. 


*  Geology  of  the  Comstook  lode  and  the  Washoe  district.    By  G.  F.  Becker.    Monograph 

III,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 
Cjmstook  mining  and  miners.    By  E.  Lord.    Monograph  IV,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey. 


120 


Development  and  importance. 

Ores :  high  grade,  associated  with  gold. 

Ores  in   bodies   irregularly  distributed   through  the  quartz  gangue; 

bonanzas. 

The  country  rock  is  diorite  and  diabase. 
Theories  of  the  origin  of  the  ores. 
The  Eureka  district.* 

Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  with  some  gold  irregularly  distributed 
through  veins  in  often  brecciated  Cambrian  limestones  and 
shales.     Depth  of  altera- 
tion of  ores  over  1300  feet. 
Idaho. 

The  Cteur  d'Alene  district. 

The  ore  is  galena  with  siderite 
gangue   in   country  rocks 
of    highly  folded    schists 
andquartzites. 
Wood  River  district. 

Ores  largely  altered  by  surface 
oxidation.     Irregularly 
distributed  in  limestones. 
New  Mexico. 

Lake  Valley  district. 

Ores:  galena,  ceruesite,  and 
chloro-bromides  in  Paleo- 
zoic limestones. 

The  silver  districts  about  Silver  City. 
Arizona. 

Tombstone  region. 

Ore :  horn  silver,  associated  with 
galenite,  free  gold,  pyrite, 
lead  carbonate. 
Geologic  relations. 
Other  silver  regions  of  the  United  States. 

California  produces  some  silver  as  a  by-product  of  gold.  Texas, 
Washington,  Dakota  (the  Black  Hills),  Michigan,  North  Caro- 
lina, Oregon,  Alaska,  are  all  silver  producers.  The  produc- 
tion in  1893  ranged  from  349,400  ozs.  in  Texas  to  9,600  ozs.  in 
Alaska,  in  the  order  named. 
Relative  importance,  t 

Effect  of  coinage  legislation  upon  the  price  and  output  of  silver. 


Fig.  81.— Section  across  a  vein  In  the 

Hillside  mine,  Yavapai  county, 

Arizona,  showing  the  ore 

scattered    through 

clay.  (Rickard.) 


*  Silver- lead  deposits  of  Eureka,  Nevada.    By  J.  S.  Curtis.    Monograph  VII,  U.  S.  Geol. 

Survey. 
Geology  of  the  Eureka  district,  Nevada.    By  Arnold  Hague.    Monograph  XX,  U.  S. 

Oeol.  Survey, 
t  Production  of  the  precious  metals  la  the  United  States.    By  Clarence  King.    Second 

ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  883-401. 


122 


SILVER. 


SILVER   OUTPUT    OF    THE    LEADING    STATES. 
(Commercial  value.) 


Years. 

Colorado. 

Montana. 

Utah. 

Idaho. 

Arizona. 

1895  
1896 

11,687,150 
15  097  500 

9,835,305 
10  548  120 

4,296,115 
5  933  526 

2,236,951 
3  623  400 

561,174 
1  34'7  000 

1897  

12,722,227 

10,049,112 

3,999,804 

3,587,400 

796  577 

1898  
1899 

13,866,535 

8,743,011 

3,876,451 

3,707,999 

1,622,500 

1900  

Fig.  82. — The  silver  output  of  the  principal  silver-producing  countries  since  1880. 


Fig.  83.~The  value  of  the  silver  production  of  the  United  States  since  1845,  and  the 
price  per  ounce  of  silver  since  1856. 


124  GOLD. 


GOLD.* 

Uses. 

Gold  has  been  used  from  the  earliest  times  in  coinage  and  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

Coinage.    The  stability  in  value  of  gold  coin. 
Ornamental  purposes,  foil,  dentistry,  medicine. 

Ores. 

Most  of  the  gold  mined  is  found  as  native  gold ;    often  alloyed  with 
silver  and  other  metals.     California  gold  contains  from  11  per 
cent,  to  13  per  cent,  silver;  Australian  gold  contains  5  per  cent, 
silver,  and  the  percentage  is  increasing. 
Other  combinations  are : 

Sylvanite  (Te  62.1,  Au  24.5,  Ag  14.4,  variable).  fC 
Nagyagite  (one  analysis,  Te  30.52,  S  8.07,  Pb  50.78,  Au  9.11  +  Ag 
and  Cu.     Other   analyses    yield:    Te  15.11  up,  S  to  10.76, 
Pb  to  57.16,  Au  7.41  to  12.75).  Ci^^Jr,^  £^5  *• 
Petzite  (Au  25.5,  Ag  42.00,  Te  32.58,  variable)./^   a^\  3. 

Modes  of  occurrence. 
Gold  is  found : 

In  veins,  as  free  gold,  and  in  combination. 
Gangue  generally  quartz;  exceptions. t 
Mining  vein  deposits. 

Milling, +  concentrating. 

The  chlorination  process  is  based  upon  the  "property  of 
chlorine  gas  to  transform  metallic  gold  into  sol- 
uble chloride  of  gold."  Gold  must  be  metallic. § 
The  cyanide  process  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  a 
dilute  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  dissolves 
gold  and  silver.  || 

*  Contributions  to  the  bibliography  of  gold.    By  A.  Liversidge.    Proc.  Austral.  Assoc. 

Adv.  Sci.,  Jan.  1895,  pp.  240-256.    This  contains  titles  not  given  in  Lock's  Gold. 
Gold.    By  A.  G.  Lock.    London,  1882.    (Bibliography.) 
La  geographic  de  Tor.    Par  A.  de  Foville.    Ann.  de  Geographic  6me  Ann^e,  Paris,  1897, 

pp.  193-211. 

L'or  dans  la  nature.    Par  Cumenge  et  Robellaz.    Paris,  1898. 
t  Gold  in  granite.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1896,  XXVI,  290-298. 
Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  April,  1896,  CLI,  309-311. 
t  Gold  mill  practices.    By  E.  B.  Preston.    Bulletin  6,  California  State  Mining  Bureau. 

Sacramento,  1895. 
g  The  extraction  of  gold  by  chemical  methods.    By  T.  K.  Rose.    Nature,  March,  1897, 

LV,  448-9. 
U  The  cyanide  process.    By  A.  Scheidel.    Bulletin  8,  California  State  Mining  Bureau, 

1894.    (Reprinted,  London,  1895.) 
The  cyanide  process  of  gold  extraction,    By  James  Park.    Auckland,  New  Zealand. 

Melbourne,  1898.    (132pp.) 


126 


GOLD. 


In  stream  or  placer  deposits,  as  flakes,  grains,  or  nuggets. 
Origin  of  placer  gold. 
Beach  deposits. 
Stream  deposits. 
Geographic  changes  subsequent  to  their  deposition. 

The  high  terrace  gravels  of  the  Sierras.* 
Methods  of  mining  placer  deposits. 

Panning,  sluicing,  booming,  dredging,  t  amalgamation. 


Fig.  84.— Theoretical  section  showing  the  origin  of  the  auriferous  gravels.    The  dark 
lines  represent  gold-bearing  veins,  of  which  the  coarser  and  heavier 

materials  accumulate  in  the  valleys. 
Distribution. 

Gold  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  elements :  it  is  found  in 
rocks  of  all  ages  and  kinds,  and  is  even  a  constituent  of  sea 
water. 

The  principal  gold-producing  countries  were : 

1898.        1899.        1900.        1901. 

South  African  Republic.  .$78,070,761 

United  States 65,082,430 

Australasia 62,294,481 

Russia 24,734,418 

Mexico 8,236,720 

British  India 7,765,807 

China 6,641,190 

Colombia 3,700,000 

South  African  deposits. J 

Though  long  known,  the  gold  deposits  of  the  Transvaal  have  been 
worked  only  since  1886. 

*  Age  of  the  auriferous  gravels  of  Nevada.    By  W.  Lindgren.    Jour.  Geol.,  1896,  IV,  881 
t  Dredging  for  gold  in  southern  rivers.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  1897,  LXIIL  211-212. 
A  practical  treatise  on  hydraulic  mining.    By  Aug  J.  Bowie,  Jr.    New  York,  1893. 
Notes  on  gold  dredging.    By  J.  B.  Jacquet.    Mineral  Resources  [of  New  South  Wales], 

No.  3     Sydney,  1898. 

Recent  gold  dredges.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1898,  LXVI,  728-9. 
I  The  deposition  of  gold  in  South  Africa.    By  S.  Czyszkowski.    Amer.  Geologist,  1896, 

The  gold  mines  of  the  Rand.  By  F.  H.  Hatch  and  J.  A.Chalmers.  London  and  New 
York,  1895.  (306pp.) 

Diamonds  and  gold  in  South  Africa.    By  Theo.  Reunert.    Johannesburg,  1893. 

The  Witwatersrand  gold  field  and  its  working.  By  L.  de  Launay.  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour., 
June,  1897,  LXIII,  631,  659. 

The  Witwatersrand  gold  fields,  banket  and  mining  practice.  By  S.  J.  Truscott.  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1898. 

Les  mines  d'or  du  Transvaal.    Par  L.  de  Launay.    Paris,  1896. 

Auriferous  conglomerate  of  the  Transvaal.  By  G.  F.  Becker.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  March, 
1898,  V,  193-208. 


128 


The  gold   yield  of    the    Witwatersrand   fields   increased  from   about 

$400,000  in  1887  to  $73,677,000  in  1898. 
Gold  in  quartz  conglomerate  beds,  occasionally  broken  by  faults  or 

dikes. 
Simplicity  of  geologic  structure  as  compared  with  other  gold  fields. 


Fig.  85. — Section  through  shafts  in  the  Rand  gold  field  showing  the  structure  and  con- 
tinuation of  the  beds  at  great  depths.    (Hatch  and  Chalmers.) 


Fig.  86.— Section  of  the  Glencairn  property  in  the  Rand,  showing  portions  of  the  four 
reefs  or  bedded  ore  deposits.    (Hatch  and  Chalmers.) 


Fig.  87. — Section  across  the  reefs  of  the  Rand  showing  the  faulting.    (Hatch  and 
Chalmers.) 


130 


GOLD. 


Fig.  88.— Section  across  saddle-reef  folds  at  Hargreaves,  New  South  Wales.    The  black 
areas  represent  the  ores.    (Watt.) 


Australasian  gold  fields.* 
The  gold-producing  colonies 

in  the  order  of  output. 
Victoria,  New  Zealand,  New 
South  Wales,  Queens- 
land,  West  Australia, 
Tasmania,   and    South 
Australia. 
Veins  and    lodes  are  called 

"  reefs." 

"  Saddle  reefs  "  in  the  Ben- 
digo  fields  of  Victoria  and 
in  the  Hargreaves  fields 
of  New  South  Wales. 

Gold  in  Russia.^ 

Gold  regions  of  the  United  States. 
The  Appalachian  region.  *" 

Gold  was  first  discovered  in 
the  United  States  in 
1799  in  North  Carolina. 

Between  1843  and  1848  the 
annual  production  was 
near  $2,000,000. 

Gold  occurs  in  quartz  veins, 
in  slates,  gneiss,  and 
schists,  and  in  the  resid- 
ual clays  derived  from 
these  rocks.  Rocks  Ar- 
chean  or  lowest  Paleo- 
zoic. 


Fig.  89.— Section    across    anticlinal    and    syn- 
clinal saddle  reefs  at  Tambaroora, 
N.  S.  Wales.    (Watt.) 


Fig.  90.— Section  of  a  "saddle   reef,"    or  iode, 
New  Chum  Consolidated  mine,  Ben- 
digo  gold  field,  Victoria,  Aus- 
tralia.   (Schmeisser.) 


*  The  genesis  of  certain  auriferous  lodes.    By  John  R.  Don.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min 

Eng.,  1897,  XXVII,  564-668;  993-1003. 

The  gold  fields  of  Australasia.    By  K.  Schmeisser.    London,  1898. 
Mining  and  milliner  gold  ores  in  western  Australia.    By  H.  C.  Hoover.    Eng.  and  Min. 

Jour.,  Dec.,  1898,  LXVI,  725-726. 

t  The  gold  placers  of  Siberia.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Jan.,  1897,  LXIII,  90. 
The  industries  of  Russia,    IV,  Mining  and  metallurgy.    By  A.  Keppen.    St.  Peters- 

burg, 1893. 


f.  c. 


;  <3 


.  9. 


132 


Fig.  91. — Section  through  the  Bendigo  gold  fields,  Victoria,  Australia,  showing  the 
saddle  reefs.    (Schmeisser.) 


Gold  is  mined  in  Virginia, 
N.  Carolina,*  S.  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  t 

The  Rocky  Mountain  district. 
Colorado.* 

Gilpin  county:  gold  with 
pyrites  in  fissure  veins 
through  gneiss. 

Boulder  county :  gold  as  tel- 
luride  ores,  in  small 
veins,  along  fault 
planes,  in  granite  or 
gneiss,  associated  with 
porphyry. 

Clear  Creek  county:  gold 
in  fissure  veins  through 
granitic  rocks. 

*  Gold  mining  in  North  Carolina  and 
adjacent  southern  Appalachian 
regions.  Bulletin  10,  Geol.  Sur- 
vey of  North  Carolina.  Raleigh, 

t  Gold  deposits  of  Georgia.  By 
Yeates,  McCallie  and  King.  Bul- 
letin 4,  Geol.  Survey  of  Georgia, 
1896. 

Gold  mining  in  Georgia.  By  William 
Tatham.  Jour.  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, July,  1898,  CXLVI,  19-26. 

I  Geology  of  Colorado  and  western 
ore  deposits.  By  Arthur  Lakes. 
Penver.  1893. 


Fig.  92.—  Vertical  section  showing  the  forking 

of  the  Pike's  Peak  vein,  Cripple  Creek 

district,  Colorado.    (Penrose.) 


134 


GOLt). 


Lake  county:  the  Leadville 
district  is  in  this  county ; 
gold  in  limestone  associ- 
ated with  porphyry,  in 
porphyry  dikes,  in  veins 
through  granite,  and  in 
placers. 

Teller  county :  the  Cripple 
Creek  region  ;*  ore  native 
gold,  and  tellurides  in  fis- 
sures and  associated  with 
dikes.  The  country  rocks 
are  eruptives.  (Figs.  92- 
97.) 

San  Miguel  county :  Telluride 
district.! 


Fig.  93.— Section  in  the  Elkton  mine,  Cripple 

Creek  district,  showing  the  relation  of 

the  vein  a  to  the  dike  b  and  to  the 

country  rock  c.    (Penrose.) 


Fig.  94.— Horizontal  section  in  the  Elkton  mine,  Cripple  Creek  district,  Colorado,  show- 
ing the  relation  of  the  vein  a  to  the  dike  6  and  to  the  country  rock  c.    (Penrose.) 


N.E. 


Pig.  95.— Section  in  the 
Victor,  Smuggler  Lee, 
and  Buena  Vista  mines. 
Cripple  Creek  district, 
showing  the  parallel 
ore-bodies  (a).  (Pen- 
rose.) 


Fig.  96.  —  Another  section 
showing  the  form  of  the 
ore-body  in  the  Victor. 
Smuggler  Lee,  and  Buena 
Vista  mines,  Cripple 
Creek  district,  Colorado. 
(Penrose.) 


Fig.  97.— Section  showing 
the  forms  of  the  vein  in 
the  Blue  Bird  mine,  Crip- 
ple Creek  district.  The 
ore  is  shown  black,  6  is 
the  country  rock.  (Pen- 
rose.) 


*  Geology  and  mining  industries  of  the  Cripple  Creek  district,  Colorado.  By  W.  Cross 
and  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  1-209. 
Washington,  1895. 

t  Mining  industries  of  the  Telluride  quadrangle.  By  C.  W.  Purington.  Eighteenth 
ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  751-848.  Washington,  1898. 


136 


(SOLD. 


ig.  98. —Diagrammatic    section 
ihowing  the  contact  of  porphyry 
and  limestone  and  the  zone  of  ore 
deposition,  Maginnis  mine,  Ju- 
dith Mountains,  Montana. 
(Weed  and  Pirsson.) 


Wyoming  and  South  Dakota:  the  Black  Hills  region. 

Gold  in  schists,  in  Cambrian  sandstones,  in  segregation  veins,  and 
in  placers  of  Pleistocene 
age. 
Montana. 

Silver  Bow  county:  gold  in  plac- 
ers near  Butte. 

Deer  Lodge  county :  gold  in  plac- 
ers and  quartz  veins ;  also 
in  granite,  where  silver  in 
large  quantities  is  often 
associated  with  it. 

Lewis  and  Clarke  county :  gold 
in  placers,  near  Helena, 
and  in  quartz  veins 
through  granite  and  slate. 

Fergus  county :   gold  chiefly  in 
deposits    associated   with 
igneous  rocks.* 
Idaho,  t 

Boise  county:  placers  developed  in  1863. 

Alturas  county :  gold  associated  with  silver  in  quartz  veins. 

The  Great  Basin   region. 
Utah. 

Salt  Lake  county :  Bingham  Canon ;  gold  associated  with  silver  in 

bedded  quartz  veins. 
Mercur  district :+  in  the  Oquirrh  Range,  Utah. 

Gold  (probably  originally  deposited  as  telluride)  occurs  na- 
tive (where  altered  by  weather)  and  as  tellurides,  in 
altered  limestones,  mostly  along  the  under  sides  of  thin 
intruded  porphyry  sheets,  but  sometimes  in  the  por- 
phyries themselves,  and  in  the  limestones  immediately 
above  them. 
The  ores  were  deposited  by  agencies  ascending  along  fracture 

planes. 

The  rocks  of  the  locality  are  Lower  and  Upper  Carboniferous 
sandstones  and  limestones,  aggregating  12,000  feet  in 
thickness;  they  are  exposed  along  a  low  anticlinal  arch* 
(Spurr.) 
Nevada. 

White  Pine  county :  Egan  Canyon ;  gold  with  silver  occurs  in  quartz 
vein  traversing  slate. 

*  Geology  and  mineral  resources  of  the  Judith  mountains  of  Montana.  By  Weed  and 
Pirsson.  Eighteenth  ann.  rep.  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  689-616.  Washington, 
1898. 

t  The  mining  districts  of  the  Idaho  basin  and  the  Boise'  ridge,  Idaho.  By  W.  Lindgren. 
Eighteenth  ann.  rep.  TJ.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  635-719.  Washington,  1898. 

t  Economic  geology  of  the  Mercur  mining  district.  By  J.  Edward  Spurr,  with  intro- 
duction by  S.  F.  Emmons.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  II,  343-455. 


138  GOLD. 

The  Comstock  lode:*  gold  with  silver,  in  a  great  quartz  vein, 
with  country  rock  of  diorite  and  diabase.  Ore  in  rich 
masses,  bonanzas.  Proportion  of  gold  to  silver,  2:  3. 

The  Pacific  Slope  region. 
California,  t 

Gold  occurs : 

In  quartz  veins  in  slates  of  Devonian  and  Carboniferous,  but 

found  mostly  in  Triassic  and  Jurassic  rocks.? 
In  placers  derived  from  the  quartz  veins. 
River  gravels. § 
High  gravels. 

Origin  and  age  of  the  high  gravels.  || 
Extent  of  the  California  gold  fields. 
The  mother  lode.H 
Methods  of  mining. 
Quartz  mining. 
.  Hydraulic  mining. 
River  and  bar  mining. 
Dredging. 
Oregon. 

Gold  in  quartz  veins  and  placers,  as  in  California. 
At  Port  Orford  gold  occurs  in  beach  sands. 

*  Geology  of  the  Comstock  lode  and  the  Washoe  district.  By  George  F.  Becker.  Mon- 
ograph III,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.  Washington,  1882. 

Comstock  mining  and  miners.  By  E.  Lord.  Monograph  IV,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.  Wash 
ington,  1883. 

t  California  mines  and  minerals.  Published  by  the  California  Miners'  Association. 
San  Francisco,  1899. 

t  Characteristic  features  of  California  gold  quartz  veins.  By  W.  Lindgren.  Bulletin 
Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  VI,  221--240.  1895. 

Gold  ores  of  California.    By  H.  W.  Turner.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  June,  1894,  CXLVII,  467-473. 

Further  notes  on  gold  ores  of  California.  By  H.  W.  Turner.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  May, 
1895,  p.  374. 

Gold  quartz  veins  of  Nevada  City  and  Grass  Valley  districts,  California.  By  W.  Lind- 
gren. Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  1-864.  Washington,  1896. 

I  The  auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California.    By  J.  D.  Whitney.    [Cam- 

bridge], 1880. 
Mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.    By  J.  Ross 

Brown.     Washington,  1868. 
Ancient  river  beds  of  the  Forest  Hill  divide.    By  R.  E.  Brown.    State  Mining  Bureau 

[Calif.],  1890,  pp.  435-465;  also  1880-82,  pp.  133,  190. 

The  auriferous  gravels  of  California.    By  J.  H.  Hammond.    Ninth  rep.  State  Mineralo- 
gist [Calif.]  for  1889,  pp.  105-138. 
Auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.    By  H.  W.  Turner.    Amer.  Geologist,  XV, 

June,  1895,  p.  371. 
The  gold  regions  of  California  are  shown  on  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  folios:  3,  Placerville; 

5,  Sacramento ;  11,  Jackson;  15,  Lassen  Peak;    17,  Marysville;  29,  Nevada  ;City; 

37,  Downieville;  41,  Sonora;  51,  Big  Trees. 

II  Old  river  beds  of  California.    By  J.  Le  Conte.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1880,  CXIX,  176. 
Ancient  channel  system  of  Calaveras  county.    By  W.  H.  Storms.    State  Mining  Bu- 
reau [Calif.],  1893-94,  pp.  482-492. 

\  Geology  of  the  Mother  Lode  gold  belt.  By  H.  W.  Fairbanks.  Amer.  Geol.,  1891,  VII, 
209-222.  Tenth  ann.  rep.  State  Mineralogist  [of  California],  1890,  pp.  23-90.  Eng. 
and  Min.  Jour.,  1896,  LXII,  248. 

The  mother  lode  of  California.  By  Ross  E.  Brown.  California  Mines  and  Minerals, 
57-72.  San  Francisco,  1899. 


140 


GOLD. 


Fig.  99.— Section  through  Table  Mountain,  Tuolumne  county,  Gal.,  showing  old  river 

auriferous  gravels  covered  by  a  bed  of  lava,  and  the  method  of  tunneling  to 

reach  them.    At  the  sides  are  shown  river  gravels  of  later  age. 


Fig.  100.— Section  through  the  Red  Point   and  Damm  channels  from  El  Dorado  canyon 

(right)  to  Humbug  canyon,  California,  showing  the  auriferous  gravels  covered 

by  lava,  and  the  method  of  reaching  them  by  tunneling.    The  dotted 

lines  at  the  sides  suggest  the  ancient  outlines  of  the  hills. 


TREADWELL   MINE 


-HO'/ 


Fig.  101.— Section  through  the  Alaska-Treadwell  mine,  Douglas  Island,  near  Juneau, 
Alaska. 


142  GOLD. 

Washington. 

Gold  has  been  mined  from  placers. 
Alaska.* 

Placer  deposits  and  quartz  veins. 

Cape  Nome  beach  placers,  t 

The  Juneau  district.     (Fig.  101.) 
Michigan. 

The  gold  production  of  the  most  important  gold  States. 
Statistics.* 
Effect  of  silver  legislation  on  gold  production. 

*  Geology  of  the  Yukon  gold  district,  Alaska.  By  J.  E.  Spurr.  Eighteenth  ann.  rep. 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  101-392.  Washington,  1898. 

Reconnaissance  of  the  gold  fields  of  southern  Alaska.  By  George  F.  Becker.  Eigh- 
teenth afln.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  1-86.  Washington,  1898. 

t  The  new  gold  fields  at  Cape  Nome,  Alaska.    By  Ivan  Brostrom.    San  Francisco,  1899. 

Cape  Nome  gold  district.    By  F.  C.  Schrader.    Nat.  Geogr.  Mag.,  Jan.,  1900,  XI,  1&-23. 

Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Dec.,  1899,  LXVIII,  727. 

t  Statistics  and  technology  of  the  precious  metals.  By  Emmons  and  Becker.  Tenth 
Census,  vol.  XIII.  Washington,  1885. 


144 


GOLD. 


$140 


RUSSIA 

AFRICA 

CHINA 

BRITISH   INDIA — 


Fig.  102.— The  gold  yield  of  the  chief  gold-producing  countries  sin 


Fig.  103.— The  comparative  gold  production  of  the  several  States  sin 


146  PLATINUM    GROUP. 


METALS  OF  THE  PLATINUM  GROUP. 


Platinum.* 

Platinum  is  a  rare  metal;  it  is  heavy,  silver-white,  ductile,  and  fusible 
only  at  a  very  high  temperature  (1779°  C.). 


Fig.  104. — The  largest  platinum  nugget  ever  found  in  America.    Natural  size,  3"x2%"; 
weight,  nearly  two  pounds ;  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 
(Baker  &  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.) 

Uses. 

It  was  used  for  coinage  in  Russia  from  1828  to  1845. 
In  chemical,  electrical,  and  surgical  apparatus. 

Ores. 

Native  platinum  occurs  alloyed  with  the  other  metajs  of  the  platinum 

group.    It  is  often  associated  with  gold. 
Sperrylite  (PtAa,).*    /^JK__     5J-J7*    ) 
Treatment.  /»  J 

Occurrence. 

It  is  usually  mined  from  placers,  where  it  is  often  found  associated 

with  gold. 

At  the  Gongo  Soco  mines  of  Brazil  it  was  taken  with  gold  from  decayed 
shistose  rocks. 

*  Bibliography  of  the  metals  of  the  platinum  group,  1748-1896.    By  J.  L.  Howe. 
The  mineral  industry,  vol.  I,  373-397.    New  York,  1893. 


/' 


iv.  S  . 
<}->1 


148  PLATINUM    GROUP. 

Distribution. 

Platinum  is    mined  at  but  few  places  in  the  world.     Most  of  the 

world's  supply  comes  from  the  Ural  Mountains  of  Russia.* 
Borneo,  Australia,  Colombia,  and  British  Columbia  all  supply  small 

amounts.     Brazil  formerly  furnished  a  considerable  quantity. 
Discovery  reported  in  New  South  Wales. t 
The  gold  mines  of  California  yield  some  platinum. 
Statistics. 


Iridium. 

Iridium  is  a  rare  metal,  extremely  hard,  lustrous,  and  steel-white.     It 
has  a  very  high  melting  point,  and  is  not  attacked  by  any  single  acid. 

Uses. 

In  alloys :  standard  weights  and  measures. 

As  a  coloring  matter  in  photography,  ceramic  art,  and  jewelry. 

In  pointing  gold  pens,  fine  tools,  and  in  the  knife-edges  of  delicate 

balances. 
Iridium  plating. 

Occurrence. 

Iridium  is  found  as  iridosmine  (alloy  of  iridium  with  osmium)  associ- 
ated with  platinum,  in  Colombia,  province  of  Choco;  in  the 
Urals  of  Russia;  in  Australia;  it  is  found  also  in  the  gold-bear- 
ing beach  sands  of  northern  California.  Iridium  occurs  alloyed 
with  platinum. 

Very  little  iridium  is  used,  the  world's  production  being  but  a  few 
tons  annually. 


Osmium. 

Osmium  is  the  heaviest  and  most  difficultly  fusible  metal   known 
(never  been  fused). 

Uses. 

It  is  "used  in  the  form  of  iridosmine  for  pointing  pens  and  fine  tools. 


Osmium  occurs  alloyed  with  iridium  (iridosmine),  and  alloyed  with 
platinum. 

*Daubr6e:  On  platinum  in  the  Urals.    Comptes  Rendus  de  1'Academie  des  Sciences, 

1875,  LXXX,  707-714. 
The  platinum  deposits  of  the  Tura  river-system,  Ural  mountains,  Russia.    By  C.  W. 

Purington.     Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  Feb.,  1899,  XXIX.     Eng.  Ming.  Jour., 

March  25,  1899,  LXVII,  SiO-Sol. 
Sur  1'industrie  de  Tor  et  du  platine  dans  TOural.    Par  M.  Laurent.    Annales  des 

Mines,  Nov.,  1890. 
t  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Feb.  22,  1896,  LXI,  182;  Aug.  8,  1896,  LXII,  126,  220;  April,  3,  1897, 

LXIII,  333. 
The  occurrence  of  platinum  in  New  South  Wales.    By  J.  B.  Jacquet.    Records  of  the 

Geol.  Survey   V,  pt.  I,  33-38.     [1896.] 


150  PLATINUM  GROU!>. 


PaUadium. 

Palladium  is  ductile  and  malleable ;  it  is  a  whitish  steel-gray  metal 
with  metallic  lustre. 

Uses. 

For  finely  graduated  scales. 

Compensating  balance  wheels  and  hair  springs  for  watches. 

Some  mathematical  and  surgical  instruments. 

Occurrence. 

Palladium  occurs  alloyed  with  platinum  and  iridium. 


152  TUNGSTP:N. 


TUNGSTEN. 

Tungsten  is  never  found  in  the  native  state,  and    the  pure  metal  is 
seldom  produced  artificially. 

Uses. 

Ferro-tungsten.     Tungsten  added  to  steel  in  small  proportion  (2  to  12 

per  cent.)  gives  greatly  increased  hardness  and  brittleness.* 
As  a  mordant. 

Ores. 

Wolframite  (FeO  19.16,  MnO  4.96,  WO3  75.88,  individual  analysis). 
Scheelite,  calcium  tungstate  (CaO  19.4,  WO3  80.6). 

Occurrence. 

Tungsten  is  usually  found  associated  with  deposits  of  tin ;  it  is  found 
•at  many  places,  but  is  produced  at  few.  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Bo- 
hemia, Australia,  and  New  Zealand  produce  practically  all  the 
tungsten  of  commerce.  The  total  production  of  Europe  in  1892 
was  263.3  tons. 

In  New  South  Wales.t 

Tungsten  is  not  produced  in  the  United  States.  It  occurs,  and  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  work  it,  in  Connecticut  at  Monroe  and 
Trumbull,  and  in  Maine  near  Blue  Hill  Bay.  It  has  been  found 
elsewhere,  but  no  attempts  at  mining  have  been  made. 

*  Alloys  of  iron  and  tungsten.  By  F.  L.  Garrison.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur- 
vey, pt.  Ill,  615-623.  Washington,  1895. 

Relative  resistance  of  tungsten  and  molybdenum  steel.  By  R.  Helmhacker.  Eng.  and 
Min.  Jour.,  Oct.  8,  1898.  LXVI,  430. 

t  Tungsten  ores  in  New  South  Wales.  By  J.  E.  Carne.  Mineral  Resources  [of  N.  S. 
Wales],  no.  2.  Sydney,  1898. 


154  MOLYRDKNUM. 


MOLYBDENUM.* 

Molybdenum  is  a  white  metal  with  a  silvery  lustre ;  it  is  as  malleable 
as  iron;  its  sp.  gr.  is  9.01. 

Use. 

Principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  molybdenum  steel. 

Ores. 

Molybdenite,  the   sulphide   (MoS.;  =  Mo  59,  S  41),   is   the   principal 
source  of  supply;  it  is  lead  gray  in  color,  very  soft,  and  greatly 
resembles  graphite. 
Wulfenite  (Pb  Mo4  =  MoO3  39.3,  PbO  60.7). 

Modes  of  occurrence. 

Molybdenum  does  not  occur  in  the  native  state. 

Molybdenite  usually  occurs  as  disseminations  or  veins  in  granite  or 

gneiss. 

Distribution. 

The  metal  is  produced  in  commercial  quantities  in  but  few  places. 

In  the  United  States:  9,550  Ibs.  of  the  metal,  valued  at  about  $1.25 
per  lb.,  were  produced  in  1898;  2,000  Ibs.  ferromolybdenum 
(50%  Mo)  were  produced  the  same  year.  New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona are  the  sources  of  supply. 

Formerly  the  chief  supply  of  the  world  has  come  from  Sweden. 

*  The  mineral  industry,  vol.  VI,  485-186:  vol   VIT.  51 1-516. 

/ 
/  &     Of  3 


156 


ANTIMONY. 


ANTIMONY. 

Antimony:    metal  with  a  tin-white  color,  crystalline   structure,  and 
very  brittle;  it  fuses  at  a  low  temperature  (430°  C.). 

Uses. 

Medicine. 
Pigments,  q.  v. 
Alloys : 

Alloyed  with  other  metals,  antimony  gives  a  hard  and   brittle 

product. 

Type-metal  is  an  alloy  of  antimony  with  lead  and  bismuth ;  when 
less  than  15  per  cent,  antimony  is  used  the  product  expands 
on  cooling. 
Babbitt  metal  is  an  alloy  of  tin  with  antimony  and  copper  (Sn  83 

per  cent.,  Cu  and  Sb  17  per  cent.). 
Pewter  is  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin  with  antimony,  bismuth,  or 

copper. 
Britannia  metal  is  an  alloy  of  tin  with  antimony  and  other  metals. 

Ores. 

Stibnite  (Sb  71.4,  S  28.6). 
Senarmontite  (Sb  83.3,  O  16.7).  S 
Kermesite  (Sb  75.0,  S  20,  O  5). 

Stibnite  is  the  most  important.     It  is  soft,  has  a  metallic  steel-gray 
color,  and  will  melt  in  a  candle  flame. 

Occurrence. 

Antimony  usually  occurs  in  veins  with  a  quartz  gangue. 

Distribution. 

The  principal  antimony-producing  countries  of  Europe  are  those  ad- 
jacent to  the  Mediterranean. 

France  is  the  most  important  antimony  producer  in  the  world :  an- 
nual output  about  5,000  tons. 

Portugal,  Spain,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  Servia,  and 
Macedonia  all  produce  some. 

Borneo  and  Japan  are  large  producers :  annual  output  from  3,000  to 
4,000  tons. 

Other  regions  are  Australia,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick. 


-  U.  %>. 

(<i.o  t-  i^»;        /        0 


^         j 

/  tf  0 


158  ANTIMONY. 

Antimony  of  the   United  States.* 

Antimony  is  found  in  many  localities  in  the  United  States,  but  little 

is  mined. 
.  Arkansas.     (Antimony  City.)t 

Stibnite  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State  in  bedded  quartz 

veins  in  Carboniferous  sandstones  and  shales. 
California.     (Inyo,  San  Benito,  and  Kern  counties.) 

Ore :  Stibnite  in  veins  with  quartz  gangue. 
Nevada.     (Near  Austin,  Lander  county.) 

One  of  the  most  important  American  localities ;  ore  occurs  as  a 

small  vein  of  almost  pure  stibnite. 
In  Humboldt  county  stibnite  occurs  in  quartz  veins.  . 
Utah.     (Iron  county.) 

Stibnite  is  disseminated  through  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  fol- 
lowing the  stratification. 
Montana.     (Near  Thompson's  Falls.) 
Relative  importance. 

Nevada  is  the  most  important  producer  in  the  United  States. 

*  Antimony.    By  W.  P.  Blake.     Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S.,  1883-84,  pp.  641-653. 
The  mineral  industry.    Vol.  II,  13-24.    New  York,  1894. 

t  Geology  of  western  central  Arkansas.    By  T.  B.  Comstock.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of 
Ark.,  vol.  I  for  1888,  pp.  136-144. 


a 


FRANCL 

MEXICO 
ITALY 

AUSTRIA 

JAPAN 


Pig.  105. — The  antimony  ores  of  the  chief  producing  countries  since 


160 


BISMUTH.* 

Bismuth  is  white  with  a  red  tinge,  very  brittle,  melts  at  264°  C.  and 
expands  on  solidifying. 

Uses. 

Its  principal  use  is  as  an  alloy ;  its  alloys  melt  at  extremely  low  tem- 
peratures and  expand  upon  solidification. 

Alloys  of  bismuth,  lead,  and  tin  fuse  at  very  low  temperatures. 
Newton's  fusible  metal  (melts  at  94.5°  C.). 
Darcet's  metal  (melts  at  93°  C.). 
Rose's  metal  (melts  below  100°  C.). 
Lipowitz's  metal  (contains  cadmium  and  melts  at  a  little  over 

60°  C.). 

The  alloys  are  used  for  making  safety  plugs  in  boilers,  for  which  they 
are  untrustworthy,  and  for  automatic  fire  plugs  in  buildings. 

Ores. 

Bismuth  often  occurs  native  in  crystalline  rocks  and  slates,  and  asso- 
ciated with  cobalt  and  nickel,  and  with  silver  and  gold.  Most 
of  it  is  derived  from  the  native  metal. 

Distribution. 

Most  of  the  bismuth  of  commerce  conies  from   Saxony,   Australia, 

Peru,  and  Bolivia. 
United  States. 

Bismuth  occurs  frequently  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  silver 
ores,  but  the  deposits  have  so  far  proved  of  no  commercial 
importance. 

The  best  known  localities  are :  Colorado,  the  Bismuth  Queen  lode, 
near   Golden;   Utah,    west  of  Beaver  City;  Arizona,  near 
Tucson. 
In  1885  the  United  States  produced  only  about  one  ton  of  bismuth. 

*  Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  bismuth  ores  in  New  South  Wales.    By  J.  A.  Watt.    Min- 
eral Resources  [of  N.  S.  Wales],  no.  4.    Sydney,  1898. 


162 


CADMIUM.* 

Cadmium  is  a  ductile,  malleable  metal,  somewhat  harder  than  tin, 
with  a  tin-white  color.  When  fresh  it  has  a  brilliant  lustre,  but  dulls 
from  oxidation  upon  exposure  to  the  air.  It  melts  at  about  320°  C. 

Uses. 

It  is  used  as  a  metal  only  in  alloys  which  fuse  at  very  low  temper- 
atures. 

Lipowitz's  metal  (60°  C.). 
Wood's  metal  (melts  at  about  66°  C.)- 
As  a  pigment,  cadmium  sulphide  gives  various  shades  of  yellow. 

Occurrence. 

Cadmium  is  not  found  native,  but  occurs  very  generally  with  the  ores 

of  zinc,  from  which  the  metal  of  commerce  is  derived. 
Yellow  smithsonite  called  "turkey-fat  "  contains  cadmium. 

Distribution. 

The  cadmium  of  commerce  is  produced  in  Silesia.  The  output  in  1892 
was  about  6,600  metric  tons. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  sometimes  found  with  the  zinc  ores  of  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  Arkansas,  and  Pennsylvania  as  yellow  zinc  car- 
bonate known  as  "  turkey-fat." 

The  price  of  cadmium  in  New  York  is  from  $1.50  to  $2.00  per  pound 
(January,  1900). 

*  Zinc  and  cadmium.    By  W.  R.  Ingalls.    Mineral  industry,  1898,  VII,  722-750. 


164  ARSENIC. 


ARSENIC.* 

Arsenic  is  a  brittle,  grayish-white  metal,  that  tarnishes  easily ;  it  is 
seldom  found  native. 

Uses. 

Medicine,  as  tonics. 

(Arsenic  compounds  are  poisonous. ) 

Insecticides. 

In  preservatives  of  wood  and  biological  specimens. 

Alloyed  with  lead  for  shot. 

As  a  pigment:  many  of  the  green  colors  contain  arsenic. 

Ores. 

The  principal  ores  of  arsenic  are :  Realgar  (As  70.1,  S  29.9) ;  Orpiment 

(As  61.0,  S  39.0);  Mispickel.(As  46.0,  Fe  34.3,  S  19.7). 
There  are  also  arsenides  of  iron,  nickel,  cobalt. 
Mode  of  treatment. 

Distribution. 

Arsenic  occurs  extensively,  but  seldom  in  sufficient  quantities  to  mine 
with  profit.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  are  the  principal  pro- 
ducers of  arsenic  at  present.  It  is  also  produced  in  Saxony  and 
Bohemia  and  has  been  produced  at  Deloro,  Ontario,  where  it 
occurs  in  gold-bearing  mispickel. 

*  The  mineral  industry.    Vol.  II,  25-36.     New  York,  1894. 

The  treatment  of  gold-bearing  arsenical  ores  at  Deloro,  Ontario,  Canada.    By  R.  P. 
Rothwell.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1882,  XI,  191-196. 


166  QUICKSILVER. 


MERCURY  (QUICKSILVER). 

Quicksilver  is  a  lustrous,  tin-white  metal  which  differs  from  the  other 
metals  in  being  a  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures;  it  becomes  solid  at 
-40°  F. 

Uses. 

In  forming  amalgams. 

The  amalgamation  process  in  extracting  gold  and  silver. 
In  silvering  mirrors. 
In  medicine. 

In  thermometers  and  mercurial  barometers. 
As  a  pigment,  especially  in  China. 

Ores. 

Quicksilver  occurs  native,  usually  in  liquid  globules  scattered  through 
the  gangue,  but  sometimes  in  cavities  in  quantities  large  enough 
to  be  dipped  up. 

Cinnabar,  mercuric  sulphide  (Hg  86.2,  S  13.8),  is  the  most  important 
ore ;  most  of  the  quicksilver  of  commerce  is  supplied  from  it. 

Native  amalgam  of  mercury  with  silver. 

There  are  several  other  combinations  of  mercury,  but  they  are  of  lit- 
tle importance  as  ores. 

Modes  of  occurrence. 

In  veins,  irregular  masses,  and  impregnations.  Confined  to  no  par- 
ticular kind  of  country  rock.  The  principal  deposits  occur  in 
regions  of  great  disturbance,  and  of  former  igneous  activity  and 
are  newer  than  the  enclosing  rock. 

All,  or  nearly  all,  are  contact  deposits  made  by  sublimation,  or  from 
the  solution  of  dissolved  mercury. 

Distribution. 
Geologic. 

Quicksilver  deposits  are  confined  to  no  particular  horizon;  the 
deposits  of  Almaden,  Spain,  are  in  Silurian  rocks;  those  of 
New  Almaden,  California,  are  in  rocks  supposed  to  be  of 
Jurassic  age. 
Geographic. 

Although  quicksilver  has  a  wide  distribution,  practically  all  of  the 
metal  of  commerce  is  supplied  from  a  few  localities;  the 
most  important,  with  their  production  in  metric  tons  for 
1898,  are : 


168  QUICKSILVER. 

I**'*- 

Spain  (Almaden)  1,852. 
United  States  (California)  1,165. 
Austria  (Idria)  544. 
Kussia  398. 
Mexico  389. 
Italy  187. 

China  and  Peru  also  produce  quicksilver. 
Spain. 

The  Almaden  mines  of  Spain  are  the  most  important  in  the 
world.  The  ore  is  cinnabar,  in  three  parallel  vein-like 
beds  standing  nearly  vertical,  approximately  parallel  to 
the  strike  of  country  rocks  of  interstratified  Upper 
Silurian  slates  and  sandstones.  The  average  thickness 
of  the  ore  deposits  is  about  20  ft.  The  deposits  at  Al- 
maden are  very  persistent  and  of  even  richness. 
Austria. 

Idria.  .  Ore:  some  native  metal,  but  mostly  cinnabar;  in 
veins,  reticulated  masses,  and  impregnations;  in  Trias- 
sic  schists,  limestones,  and  sandstones.  Gangue  ma- 
terials: quartz,  calcite,  dolomite.  The  ore  becomes 
richer  as  the  depth  increases . 
Italy  (Vallalta  region). 

Ore  is  cinnabar  in  impregnations  and  stringers  at  the  contact 

of  Triassic  rocks  and  quartz  porphyry. 
Russia. 

Cinnabar  is  found  in  the  gold-mining  regions  of  the  Urals, 

and  at  other  places. 
China. 

Cinnabar  has  been  produced  in  great  quantities  from  Kai- 

Chau. 
Peru. 

Huancavelica  district.     The  ore  is  cinnabar  in  almost  vertical 

Jurassic  rocks.     Ore  thought  to  be  sublimed. 

Quicksilver  is  known  to  occur  in  many  other  foreign  countries, 
but  they  are  not  producers. 

Quicksilver  of  the  United  States* 

Quicksilver  occurs  in  California,  Oregon,  Utah,  Nevada,  but  only  in 
California  have  the  deposits  proved  of  much  commercial  im- 
portance. 
California.     All  of  the  quicksilver  deposits  of  California  are  found  in 

the  Coast  Range. 

New  Almaden,  after  the  Almaden  region  of  Spain,  has  been  the 
most  important  quicksilver  region  of  the  world. 

*  Geology  of  the  quicksilver  deposits  of  the  Pacific  Slope.    By  Geo.  F.  Becker.    Mono- 
graph XIII,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.    Washington,  1888.     (Contains  bibliography.) 


170 


QUICKSILVER. 


Ore  is  cinnabar,  with  some  native  metal,  in  chambered  veins; 
reticulated  masses  and  impregnations  in  the  country 
rock;  gangue  of  quartz,  calcite,  and  dolomite. 
Two  principal  fissures  unite  at  a  depth  enclosing  a  wedge- 
shaped  mass  of  country  rock,  which  has   ore-bearing 
channels  through  it. 
New  Idria  (Fresno  county). 

Ore:  cinnabar,  in  reticulated  masses,  in  impregnations,  and 
in    fissure    veins.     Country 
rock  mostly  much  fissured 
metamorphosed  sandstones 
and  shales. 

Veins  apparently  still  filling. 
Near  Clear  Lake  and  south  of  it  there 
are    numerous    quicksilver    de- 
posits. 

Sulphur  Bank.  Ore :  cinnabar  as- 
sociated with  sulphur  below 
the  zone  of  oxidation;  in 
shattered  rock  masses  and 
as  impregnations. 
Great  Western  mine. 

Ore  in    "  tabulated   masses  " 
at    contact    of    altered 
sandstone  and    serpen- 
tine. 
Great     Eastern     mine     (Sonoma 

county). 

Ore  in   an  irregular  pipe,   or 
chimney      deposit,      in 
opalized  rock. 
Oregon.- 

Quicksilver  occurs  in  the  Cascade  Mountains. 
Nevada. 

Steamboat  Springs.     Cinnabar  as  impregnations  through  decom- 
posed granite,  in  connection  with  hot  springs. 
Statistics  usually  given  in  flasks  of  76%  pounds. 


Fig.  106.— V  e  r  t  i  c  a  1    section 

through  shaft   No.  3,  Great 

Western  quicksilver  mine. 

Lake  county,  California. 

(Becker).    Scale,  300 

feet  to  1  inch. 


v  J^. 


172 


QUICKSILVER. 


Fig.  107. — Statistics  of  the  price,  production,  exports,  and  imports  of  quicksilver  in  the 
United  States  since  1850,  in  flasks  of  76%  pounds. 


LLi-LLLJJ 

UNITED  STATES 

SPAIN        

AUSTRIA 
ITALY 
RUSSIA 
MEXICO 

± 


Fig.  108.— The  quicksilver  production  of  various  countries  since  1880. 


174  PRECIOUS    STONES. 


v  t  PRECIOUS  STONES.* 

Precious  stones  are  no  particular  kind  of  stones ;  the  value  of  those 
used  as  such  is  a  matter  of  fancy  and  fashion. 

Interest  in  precious  stones;  amount  invested  by  individuals  in  the 
United  States. 

Essential  qualities  of  precious  stones  are  hardness,  beauty  of  color, 
and  rarity. 
Examples : 

Diamond,  h.  10. 
Oriental  ruby,  h.  9. 
Oriental  emerald,  h.  9. 


Diamonds. 

Uses. 

Brilliants. 

Glass  cutting. 

Polishing  (powder). 

Diamond  drills  of  bort  or  carbonado. 

Occurrence  and  origin,  t 

Diamonds  are  crystals  of  pure  carbon. 
In  placers,  conglomerates,  and  rocks  in  place. 
Theory  of  plant  origin ;  graphite  in  Brazilian  rocks. 
Theory  of  igneous  or  metamorphic  origin. 
Method  of  cutting  and  polishing. 
Common  sizes ;  sizes  of  famous  diamonds. 
Artificial  production  of  diamonds. i 

Diamonds  found  in  commercial  quantities  only  in  India,  Borneo, 
Brazil,  and  South  Africa. 

*  Precious  stones  and  gems :  their  history,  sources,  arid  characteristics.    By  E.  W. 

Streeter.    Fifth  ed.    London,  1892. 

Gems  and  precious  stones  of  North  America.    By  George  F.  Kunz.    New  York,  1892. 
The  production  of  precious  stones  in  1898.    By  G.  F.  Kunz.    Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 

Geol.  Sur.,  pt.  VI,  1-50.    Washington,  1899. 
The  production  of  precious  stones  in  1898.    By  G.  F.  Kunz.    Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 

Geol.  Survey,  pt.  VI,  1-50.     Washington,  1899. 
t  Brazilian  evidence  on  the  genesis  of  the  diamond.    By  O.  A.  Derby.    Jour.  Geol.,  1898, 

VI,  121-146. 

Diamonds.    By  Wm.  Crookes.    Nature,  Aug.  5,  1897,  LVI,  325-331. 
Occurrence   and  origin  of  diamonds  in  California.    By  H.  W.   Turner.    Amer.  Geol., 

March,  1899,  XXIII,  182. 

Amer.  Naturalist,  April.  1884,  XVIII,  418.    Min.  Mag.,  V,  199. 
I  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  March,  1897,  III,  243. 
Annales  de  Chimie,  7me  ser,  1896,  VIII,  466. 
Comptes  Rendus,  1896,  CXXIII,  206,  210;  CXIII,  277. 
Jour.  Franklin  Institute,  Sept.,  1898,  CXLVI,  236-237. 


-?• 


176  PRECIOUS    STONES. 

India.* 

The  Indian  mines  the  oldest  known  diamond  mines.     They  supplied 

Europe  until  the  discovery  of  diamonds  in  Brazil,  about  1729. 
The  mines  are  all  south  of  the  Ganges. 
The  most  famous  mines  are  those  of  Parteal,  near  Golconda,  the  old 

diamond  market,  and  of  Panna. 
The  stones  are  found  in  two  deposits:  (1)  in  a  conglomerate  at  the 

base  of  the  Karnul  beds  (pre-Cam6rian);  (2)  in  recent  stream 

deposits  derived  in  part  from  the  conglomerate. 
The  Karnul  conglomerates  and  their  diamonds  are  derived  from  earlier 

rocks  ;  Indian  diamonds  not  known  to  have  been  found  in  their 

original  matrix. 

Method  of  working  the  conglomerates. 
Relations  of  structure  to  the  occurrence  of  diamonds. 
Possibilities  of  improved  methods  of  work. 


Diamonds  have  been  found  in  several  islands  of  Oceanica,  but  Borneo 
has  been  the  only  one  to  produce  them  in  quantity. 

They  are  found  there  mostly  in  river  gravels  overlying  Tertiary,  and 
in  smaller  quantities  in  rocks  in  place.  The  rocks  of  the  region 
are  schists,  granites,  and  other  igneous  rocks. 

1836  to  1848  yield  averaged  $36,179  worth  per  year. 

1876  to  1880  yield  averaged  $63,750  worth  per  year. 

Brazil.^ 

Diamonds  discovered  in  the  gold  mines  in  1727  or  1728. 

Brazil  was  then  a  Portuguese  colony;  the  diamond  lands  were  appro- 

priated by  the  crown  and  worked  by  contractors  and  later  by 

the  royal  treasury. 
Total  production  of  Brazilian  diamonds  by  the  best  possible  estimates 

from  1728  to  1885,  12,000,000  carats,  or  about  two  and  a  half 

tons,  and  worth  about  $100,000,000. 
Geographically  the  diamonds  are  confined  to  limited  areas  in  the 

states  of  Bahia,  Minas  Geraes,  and  Matto  Grosso. 
Geologically  they  are  found  almost  exclusively  in  the  gravels  of  ancient 

or  modern  streams. 
Methods  of  working  on  a  small  scale. 
Heavy  work  of  turning  the  streams. 

Ancient  methods  used  for  dams,  flumes,  and  cleaning  up.    Mawe's 
visit  in  1809. 

*  The  diamond  in  India.    By  R.  F.  Burton.    Quar.  Jour.  Sci.,  XIII,  351-360.    London,  1876. 
A  manual  of  the  geology  of  India,  pt.  Ill,  economic  geology,  pp.  1-50.    By  V.  Ball.    Cal- 

cutta, 1881. 

t  Travels  in  the  interior  of  Brazil.    By  John  Mawe.    Philadelphia,  1816. 
Monographic  du  diamant.    Par  H.  Jacobs  et  N.  Chatrian.    Paris,  1880. 
Encyclopedic  chimique  de  M.  Fremy.    Le  Diamant.    Par  M.  E.  Boutan.    Paris.  1886. 


,«- 


178 


PRECIOUS   STONES. 


Possibilities  of  improved  methods  of  work. 

Camara's  use  of  machinery;  why  it  failed. 
Condition  of  the  common  roads. 
Character  of  the  labor  available. 
Black  diamonds  (carbonado)  found  in  the  state  of  Bahia. 

Their  uses  in  diamond  drills. 

Demand  produced  by  boring  machines. 


Fig.  109.—  Vertical  section  through  the  Kimberly  diamond  mine,  South  Africa. 
(Reunert.) 


South  Africa.* 

Effect  of  the  discovery  of  African  diamonds  in  1865  upon  the  other 

diamond  mines. 
Geology  :  peridotite  dike  in  Carboniferous  black  shales,  t 

Supposed  influence  of  these  rocks  on  the  formation  of  the  dia- 
monds. 
Effect  of  depth  on  African  diamonds. 

Cracking  after  removal. 
The  use  of  machinery  favored  by  the  nature  of  the  deposits. 

*  Africa  since  1888.    By  G.  G.  Hubbard.    Nat.  Geogr.  Mag.,  May,  1896,  VII,  161-162. 
Diamonds  and  gold  In  South  Africa.    By  T.  Reunert,    Johannesburg,  1893. 
The  diamond  mines  of  Kimberly.    By  Win.  Crookes.     Nature,  April  1,  1897,  LV,  519-523. 
Monographic  du  diamant.    Par  H.  Jacobs  et  N.  Chatrian.    Paris,  1880. 
t  Parent  rock  of  the  South  African  diamond.    By  T.  G.  Bonney.    Nature,  Oct.  26,  1899. 
LX,  620-621. 


180  PRECIOUS    STONES. 


Other  Stones. 

Corundum*  (oxide  of  aluminium;  O  47.1,  Al  52.9). 

Varieties  of  corundum  differing  chiefly  in  colors  due  to  small  amounts 

of  metallic  oxides  are : 
Sapphire,  blue,  from  Burma. 
Oriental  emerald  is  a  green  sapphire. 
Oriental  ruby,  red. 
Topaz,  yellow. 
Oriental  amethyst,  purple. 

These  stones  all  come  from  Burma, t  Ceylon,  and  Siam,  where  they 
occur  as  crystals  in  limestones,  or  derived  from  them  by  decay. 

Turquoi s ^( hydrous  phosphate  of  aluminium:  water  20.6,  alumina  46.8, 
phosphorus  pentoxide  32.6;  it  usually  contains  some  copper  and 
iron). 

Color  from  sky-blue  to  greenish-gray. 

Oriental  turquois  from  thin  seams  in  igneous  rocks  in  Persia. 
Egyptian  turquois  changes  from  blue  to  green. 

American  turquois  from  Los  Cerrillos,  New  Mexico;  Cochise  county, 
Arizona,  about  twenty  miles  from  Tombstone.} 

Garnet.  NThe  precious  garnet  is  almandite  (silica  36.2,  alumina  20.5,  iron 

protoxide  43.3)  and  pyrope  (silica 44. 8,  alumina  25.4,  magnesia  29. 8). 

Several  minerals  are  included  under  this  head ;  the  finest  of  them  are 

from  India ;  fire  pyrope  from  the  Kimberly  diamond '  mines, 

South  Africa. 

Beryl.  AAqua-marine,  emerald,  and  oriental  cat's-eyes  are  varieties  of  beryl. 
The  former  occur  as  isolated  crystals  and  in  geodes  in  clay  slate  in 
-New  Grenada;  in  Brazil,  Hindostan,  Ceylon,  and  Siberia. 

Tourmaline.  Rubellite$  is  a  red  variety;  indicolite  is  a  blue  variety ;  Bra- 
zilian emerald  is  a  green  variety. 

Quartz.  Many  beautiful  gems  made  from  quartz  and  from  various  miner- 
als belonging  to  the  quartz  group.  Extensive  use  of  common  clear 
quartz  and  gold  quartz. 

Under  crystalline  quartz  belong  amethyst,  cairngorm,  cat's-eye,  false 
topaz,  and  many  others. 

*  Corundum  and  its  uses.     Nature,  April,  1899,  LIX,  558-559. 

t  The  rubies  of  Burma  and  associated  minerals.    By  C.  B.  Brown  and  J.  W.  Judd. 

Philosophical  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.    London,  1896,  vol.  CLXXXII,  151-228. 
t  A  turquois  deposit  in  Mohave  county,  Arizona.    By  A.  B.  Frenzel.    Eng.  and  Min. 

Jour.,  Dec.  10,  1898,  LXVI,  697. 
\  On  rubellite  see  The  rubies  of  Burma.    By  Brown  and  Judd. 


182  PRECIOUS   STONES. 

Under  cryptocrystalline  quartz   are  agate   (from   southern   Brazil),* 
moss  agate,   chalcedony,    carnelian,    jasper,    onyx    (used    for 
cameos),  silicified  wood  or  wood-agate  ( Arizona). t 
Opal  is  silica-like  quartz  with  varying  amount  of  water.     Fire  opal 

from  Mexico. 

Pearls  are  not  stones,  although  grouped  with  precious  stones  commer- 
cially.    "Pearls  are  lustrous  concretions,  consisting  essentially  of 
carbonate  of  lime  interstratified  with  animal  membrane,  found  in 
the  shells  of  certain  mollusks." — Kunz. 
Probably  formed  about  foreign  bodies  in  the  mantle. 
Pearls  of  commerce  are  from  bivalve  shells,  most  of  them  from  the 
pearl  oyster  (Meleagrina).     They  are  furnished  also  by  some 
fresh-water  shells,  Unio,  Anadon,  etc. 
La  Paz,  Lower  California,  the  centre  of  the  pearl-fishery  in  America.} 

*  H.  H.  Smoth  in  Amer.  Naturalist,  Oct.,  1883,  XVII,  1013-1013. 

On  the  formation  of  agate,  see  Bischof's  Chemical  geology,  I,  53-54.    London,  1854. 

t  Stone  forest  of  Floressant.    By  Angelo  Heilprin.    Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  August,  1896, 

XLIX,  479. 
t  Gems  and  precious  stones  of  North  America.    By  George  F.  Kunz.    New  York,  1892. 


Fig.  110.— Value  of  the  precious  stones  imported  into  the  United  States  since  1867. 


COAL. 

National  importance  of  coal. 

The  coal  product  of  the  United  States  in  1898  was  capable  of  doing  the 
work  of  361,622,007  men  working  ten  hours  a  day  for  365  days  in  the  year. 

Uses  of  coal. 

Domestic  purposes. 

Fuel ;  illuminating  gas. 
Steam  producing. 

Locomotives;  navigation;  driving  machinery. 
Production  of  electricity. 

Problem  of  converting  coal  into  electricity  directly. 
Metallurgical  purposes,  including  coke. 

Reduction  of  ores. 

Blacksmithing. 
Exportation. 

The  proportions   of  coal   used   for  various   purposes   shown   approx- 
imately by  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  in  1876 : 

Domestic  purposes,  including  gas,  10  fortieths. 

Manufacturing  and  locomotion,  11  fortieths. 

Metallurgical  purposes,  15  fortieths. 

Exportation,  4  fortieths. 

The  origin  of  coal.* 

The  vegetable  origin  of  coal  shown  by : 

Fragments  of  plants  in  the  shales  above  and  below  coal  beds.  In 
some  cases  the  impressions  contain  the  coal  made  by  in- 
dividual plants. 

Microscopic  plant  fragments  and  spores  through  the  coal. 

Chemical  composition. 

Intergradation  of  peat  and  coal. 
The  physical  conditions  under  which  coal  was  deposited.  + 

Evidence  of  the  nature  of  accompanying  rocks. 

Evidence  of  the  accompanying  fossils. 

*  On  the  vegetable  origin  of  coal.    By  Leo  Lesquereux.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pa. 

for  1885,  pp.  95-124.    Harrisburg,  1886. 
Observations  regarding  the  occurrence  of  anthracite,  with  a  new  theory  of  its  origin. 

By  W.  P.  Gresley.    Amer.  Geologist,  July,  1896,  XVIII,  1-21. 

On  the  origin  of  coal.    By  J.  E.  Bowman.    Trans.  Manchester  Geol.  Soc.,  1840,  I,  90-111. 
t  On  the  physical  conditions  under  which  coal  was  formed.    By  J.  S.  Newberry.    School 

of  Mines  Quarterly,  1883,  IV,  169-173. 


186 


COAL. 


Geologic  distribution  of  coal. 

The  bulk  of  the  world's  coal  comes  from  rocks  of  Carboniferous  age, 
but  it  is  also  found  in  rocks  of  all  ages  except  the  oldest  and 
newest. 

Thin  beds  in  the  Devonian ;  the  most  important  beds  in  the  Carbon- 
iferous. 

Permian  coal  in  Australia. 

Triassic  coal  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

Carboniferous  and  Jurassic  over  a  large  part  of  China. 

Cretaceous  and  Jurrasic  anthracite  in  Peru. 

Tertiary  coal  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Geographic  distribution. 

The  largest  coal  fields  are  those  of  China;  they  are  but  little  known. 
The  greatest  coal-producing  countries  are  Great  Britain,  the  United 

States,  and  Germany;  these  countries  produce  four  fifths  of  the 

coal  of  the  world. 


« 


1870  1880  1890  1900 

Fig.  111. — The  coal  production  of  the  principal  coal-mining  countries  sit 


190  COAL. 

The  coal  deposits  of  North  America.* 

The  Carboniferous  coals  are  the  most  abundant  and  most  important. 
The  workable  beds  of  Carboniferous  coal  cover  an  area  of  193,000 

square  miles  in  the  United  States. 
The  Carboniferous  geography  of  the  United  States. 
Relations  of  the  anthracite  to  the  bituminous  coal  fields. 
The  Triassic  coal  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 
Coal  of  Cretaceous  age  in  Colorado,  Wyoming,   North  Dakota, 

Montana,  and  Calif  ornia.t 
Tertiary  coal  about  Puget  Sound,  in   Oregon,*   Alaska,   and   in 

Arkansas  and  Texas. 


Fig.  113.— Section  through  synclinal  hills  of  the  coal  regions  left  by  the  removal  of  inter- 
vening anticlinal  hills.    The  dotted  lines  show  the 
former  continuation  of  the  beds. 

*  Geology  of  the  coal  regions  of  Arkansas.    By  Arthur  Winslow.    Little  Rock,  1888. 

Report  of  the  geological  survey  of  Ohio.  Economic  Geology,  vols.  V  and  VI.  By  Ed- 
ward Orton.  Columbus,  1884  and  1888. 

Manual  of  coal  and  its  topography.    By  J.  P.  Lesley.    Philadelphia,  1856. 

The  coal  regions  of  America.    By  James  Macfarlane.    New  York,  1873. 

Mining  methods  and  appliances  used  in  the  anthracite  coal  fields.  By  H.  M.  Chance. 
(Report  AC  of  the  sec.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pa.)  Harrisburg,  1883. 

Report  of  progress  in  the  anthracite  region.  By  C.  A.  Ashburner.  (Report  A  A  of  the 
sec.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pa.)  Harrisburg,  1883. 

I.  The  Pittsburg  coal  region.  III.  Anthracite  coal  region.  Ann.  rep.  of  the  Geol.  Sur- 
vey of  Pa.  for  1886.  Harrisburg,  1887. 

The  coal  deposits  of  Indiana.  By  George  H.  Ashley.  Twenty-third  ann.  rep.  Depart- 
ment of  Geology  and  Natural  Resources,  1898,  pp.  1-1573.  Indianapolis,  1899. 

t  California  and  Pacific  Coast  coals.  By  Peckham  and  Goodyear.  Geol.  of  California, 
Appendix  III. 

Folio  9.  Anthracite— Crested  Butte  Folio,  Colorado.  Geologic  Atlas  of  the  United 
States.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Washington,  1894. 

Coal  beds  of  California.  By  H.  W.  Fairbanks.  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  July  4,  1896, 
LXII,  10. 

J  The  coal  mines  of  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States.  By  W.  A.  Goodyear.  New 
York,  1879. 

Some  coal  fields  of  Puget  Sound.  By  Bailey  Willis.  Eighteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol. 
Survey,  pt.  Ill,  393-4X5.  Washington,  1898. 

[Coal  in  Oregon].  Geological  reconnoissance  in  northwestern  Oregon.  By  J.  S.  Diller. 
Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  I,  490-508.  Washington,  1896. 

Coal  and  lignite  of  Alaska.  By  W.  H.  Dall.  Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey, 
pt.  I,  771-907.  Washington,  1896. 

The  Coos  Bay  coal  field,  Oregon.  By  J.  S.  Diller.  Nineteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur- 
vey, pt.  Ill,  309-376.  Washington,  1899. 

Coal  field  of  the  north  Pacific  Coast.  By  R.  Brown.  Trans.  Edinburgh  Geol.  Soc.,  1870, 
1,305-335. 

Coal  resources  of  Washington.    By  T.  B.  Corey.    Mining,  I,  231-239.    Spokane,  1896. 


192 


COAL. 


Structural  features  of  coal  regions. 

Structural  features  of  coal  geology  vary  from  nearly  horizontal  beds  to 

highly  folded,  faulted,  and  eroded  ones. 

In  the  bituminous  regions  of  the  United  States  the  beds  are  mostly 
horizontal ;  in  the  anthracite  regions  they  are  much  folded ;  in 
Scotland  they  are  extensively  faulted. 
Separation  of  coal  fields  in  folded  areas. 
Origin  of  the  outliers  in  regions  of  horizontal  beds. 
Relations  of  dip  and  folds  to  development. 
Splitting  of  beds. 

Surface  features  in  glaciated  areas. 
Danger  from  pot-holes ;  the  Nanticoke  disaster. 


Fig.  114.— Section  showing  the  folded  coal  beds  of  the  anthracite  region  in  Schuylkill 
county,  Pennsylvania. 


Fig.  115.— Section  showing  faulted  coal  beds  in  Scotland. 


Fig.  116. — Geologic  section  in  the  glaciated  part  of  the  coal  region  of  Indiana,  showii 
how  the  outcrops  are  mostly  concealed  by  drift.    (Ashley.) 

Rocks  associated  with  coal. 

Conglomerates:  their  relations  to  the  coal. 

Sandstones :  lithologic  characters  not  important. 

Shales :  not  confined  to  coal-bearing  horizons. 

"  Coal  blossom." 
Coal  occurs  in  beds,  not  in  veins,  properly  speaking. 


fl       b 


rr,     J  V-TT^O 


X 


£— <  ^^^ . 


^/./?    ^— T_ 


^(.     ^-V/>    -2    ^  'A 


,     >.  a 


194 


COMPOSITION  OF  COALS. 
(Individual  cases.) 


Quality 

'     Water 

Sulphur 

Ash 

Fixed 
Carbon 

Volatile 
Hydro- 
carbon 

Lignite*  

f          12.45 

0.56 

12.45 

35.53 

39.00 

0  70 

0  86 

3  56 

78  99 

15  87 

Semi-bituminous  
Anthracite  

0.74 
2.49 

4.06 
0.65 

9.96 
8.54 

72.60 
83.96 

12.61 
4.34 

*  These  two  analyses  of  lignite  are  of  the  same  specimen,  one  haviner  been  made 
shortly  after  the  lignite  was  taken  from  the  mine,  the  other  after  it  had  air-dried  for  one 
month. 


Classification  by  fuel  ratio. 
Formula:    Fuel   ratio  = 


fixed  carbon 


Bituminous 
Semi-bituminous 
Semi-anthracite 
Anthracite 


volatile  hydrocarb*n  ' 
1  to    5. 
5  to    8. 
8  to  12. 
12  to  99. 


This  classification  may  or  may  not  hold  in  trade. 
Effect  of  water  in  coal ;  objection  to  lignite. 
Effect  of  sulphur;  aids   combustion  but  attacks  grates  and 

boilers;  injures  pig  iron. 

Fixed  carbon  determines  steaming  value  of  bituminous  coals. 
Influence  of  fixed  carbon  in  manufacturing  coke. 
Volatile  hydrocarbon  in  gas  manufacture. 
Influence  of  the  physical  properties  of  coal. 
Cannel  coal. 

The  coal  supply. 

Statistics  of  production. 

The  structural  features  of  coal  make  it  easy  to  compute  the  available 

coal  supply. 
Consumption  of  coal  in  the  United  States. 

Increase  of  output,  past  and  future. 
Difficulties  of  determining  the  period  of  exhaustion. 

Possibility  of  working  thinner  beds. 

Decreasing  loss. 
Possibility  of  utilizing  other  sources  of  energy. 

Natural  gas. 

Petroleum. 

Waterpower  available  through  electric  transmission. 

The  waste  of  coal. 

Not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  coal  is  utilized. 
The  amount  of  coal  in  the  world  is  limited,  and  all  unnecessary  waste 
should  be  avoided, 


f'fr.   0 


^ 


196  COAL. 

Waste  in  using  through  loss  of  heat;  imperfect  combustion. 
Waste  in  getting. 

In  England  the  loss  was  formerly  two- thirds ;  now  one-fourth. 
The  coal  waste  commission  of  Pennsylvania*  estimates  the  total 
loss  in  the  Anthracite  region  at  from  65  per  cent  to  70  per 
cent,  and  that  this  will  be  reduced  to  60  per  cent. 
This  loss  is  constant  for  the  whole  region,  but  varies  greatly  with 

individual  mines. 

Waste  in  pillars,  30-45  per  cent  of  the  whole  bed. 
How  they  may  be  saved.     Longwall  mining. t 
Waste  in  blasting. 

Wedging,  mining  machinery. J 

Effect  of  strikes  on  the  use  of  machinery. 
Waste  in  sorting,  7  per  cent  of  what  is  mined. 
Influence  of  thin  beds  of  shale  in  coal  bed. 
Waste  in  handling. 

Breaker  waste,  24-32  per  cent  of  what  goes  to  the  breaker. 

Culm  heaps  of  the  anthracite  regions. 
Results  of  different  methods  of  breaking  and  screening. 

Gyrating  screens. § 
Waste  in  shipping. 
The  amount  of  loss  affected  by  the  friability  of  the  coal. 

Waste  is  much  less  now  than  formerly. 
Waste  caused  by  leaving  behind  beds  that  would  become  valuable  in 

the  future. 
Utilization  of  coal  waste. 

Burning  culm  on  special  grates. || 
Made  into  briquettes  and  eggettes.H 

Extensively  used  in  Europe. 
Pulverized  fuel ;  doubtful  results. 
Filling  mines. 

Importance  of  stacking  coal  waste  and  other  waste  separately. 
Utilization  of  peat.** 

*  Report  of  commission  on  waste  of  coal  mining  (in  Pennsylvania).    By  E.  B.  Coxe  and 

others.    Philadelphia,  1893. 

t  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Nov.  21,  1896,  LXII,  487;  April  10,  1897,  LXIII,  350. 
J  Coal-cutting  machinery.    By  E.  W.  Parker.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1899,  XXIX. 
I  Winslow  in  ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Ark.,  1888,  III,  105. 

||  Burning  anthracite  culm.    By  John  R.  Wagner.    Cassier's  Mag.,  Nov.,  1895,  IX,  1-26. 
The  yield  of  the  Reynolds  anthracite  culm  bank.    By  A.  D.  Smith.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour., 

April  15,  1899,  LXVII,  440. 
5  Patent  fuel  and  its  manufacture.    By  C.  Archibald.    Jour.  Fed.  Can.  Min.  Inst.,  1898, 

II,  288. 

**  On  peat  and  its  uses.    By  T.  S.  Hunt.    Canadian  Naturalist,  Dec.,  1864, 1,  426-441. 
Turf  (peat)  briquettes  in  Germany.    By  John  E.  Kehl.    U.  S,  Consular  reps.,  LIX,  98. 

C++JL 


198 


COAt. 


TOT/M.FKOOUC 

AMTHRACITE- 
PENNSYLVANI 
ILLINOIS 

WtSTVl 


Fig.  117.— Comparative  production  of  coal  in  the  chief  coal-mining  States  since  1880. 


200  GRAPHITE. 


GRAPHITE,  PLUMBAGO,  OR  BLACK  LEAD. 

Graphite  is  pure  carbon,  having  a  greasy  feel  and  a  black  metallic 
lustre. 

Uses* 

Best  qualities  for  lead  pencils  and  crayons. 

Its  most  important  use  is  for  making  crucibles  and  other  refractory 

materials. 

As  a  lubricant;  advantages :  not  affected  by  cold,  heat,  or  air.t 
Inferior  grades  for  stove  polish. 
In  electrotyping. 

Occurrence. 

Most  abundant  in  old  metamorphic  rocks. 

Vein-like  deposits. 

Bed-like  deposits. 
Theory  of  its  organic  origin. t 

Graphite  found  in  pig  iron :  why. 

Distribution. 

Widely  distributed,  but  mined  in  few  countries. 

The  leading  producers  in  the  order  of  their  importance  at  present  are : 
Austria, 
Ceylon, 
Germany, 
Italy, 

United  States,  and 
Japan . 

Product  of  the  Alibert  mine,  Siberia,  used  for  the  best  pencils. 
Ceylon  product  noted  for  its  purity. 
Austria.^ 

The  Austrian  deposits  are  in  gneiss  and  schist ;  in  places  eighteen  feet 

thick. 
Ceylon. 

The  veins  are  in  gneiss ;  some  of  the  graphite  99.79  per  cent  carbon. 
Germany. 

In  Bavaria  a  vein  in  gneiss  sometimes  16  feet  thick;  product  impure. 

*  Der  Graphit  und  seine  wichtigsten  Annendungen.    Von  Dr.  Heinrich  Weger.    Berlin, 

1872. 

t  Mineral  industry,  1898,  VII,  385-387. 

t  Coal  converted  into  graphite.    By  A.  Taylor.    Trans.  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.,  1874,  II,  368. 
Origin  of  grahamite.    By  I.  C.  White.    Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  1899,  X,  284. 
g  La  geologic  et  1'exploitation  des  gites  de  graphite  de  la  Boheme  M6ridionale.    Par 

M.  Bonnefoy.    Annales  des  Mines,  7  ser.,  1879,  XV,  157-208. 


202  GRAPHITE. 

Japan;  Italy;  India.* 
Canada.* 

In  veins  and  thin  seams  in  Lauren tian  rocks ;  most  important  deposits 
in  Province  of  Quebec. 

United  States. 

Many  occurrences.  The  only  mines  worked  are  those  at  Graphite, 
near  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Cranston,  R.  I.J  At  the  latter 
place  it  is  associated  with  anthracite. 

It  occurs  in  the  Coal  Measures  of  New  Mexico. 

In  Gunnison  county,  Colorado,  are  graphite  beds  2  feet  thick. 

In  Albany  county,  Wyoming,  it  occurs  in  veins. 

In  California,  mixed  with  kaolin;  importance  and  difficulty  of  separa- 
tion. 

*  Manual  of  the  geology  of  India.    Economic  geology.    By  V.  Ball.    Calcutta,  1881,  pp. 

50-58. 

t  Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  1869,  XXV,  406. 
Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1870,  C,  130. 
t  A  graphite  mine.    By  R.  H.  Palmer.     England  Min.  Jour.,  Dec.  9,  1899,   LXVIII,  694. 


UNITED  STATES- 
AUSTRIA 

CEYLON 

ITALY 

GERMANY  >  1 1  u  1 1 


i 


Fig.  118.— The  production  of  graphite  in  the  principal  countries  since  1872. 


204  PKTROLEUM. 


PETROLEUM  AND  NATURAL  GAS.* 

These  substances  are  so  related  that  it  is  convenient  to  discuss  them 
together. 

The  hydrocarbon  series  is  natural  gas,  naphtha,  petroleum,  mineral  tar, 
asphalt.  Petroleum  is  formed  from  naphtha  by  loss  of  volatile  matter  and 
oxidation ;  petroleum  oxidizes  to  mineral  tar  or  ozokerite,  which  oxidizes 
to  asphalt. 


Petroleum,  t 

Uses. 

In  its  crude  condition. 

Lubricating,  fuel,  driving  engines. 
After  being  refined,  as 

Kerosene,  gasoline,  and  paraffine,  for  illuminating  and  heating. 

Benzine  for  paints  and  varnishes. 

Vaseline  for  medicinal  and  other  purposes. 

Naphtha,  rhigolene,  cymogene. 

Origin.* 

Mendeljieff's  theory  (1877):  water  in  contact  with  hot  carbides  of 
metals,  especially  of  iron,  decomposes ;  oxygen  unites  with  iron ; 
hydrogen  takes  up  carbon,  ascends,  and  condenses  to  oil  and 
gas.  Objection  to  this  theory. 

Generally   accepted   theory  that  oil  and  gas  are  slowly  and  sponta- 
neously distilled  from  organic  matter. § 
Deposits  of  organic  origin  in  accompanying  beds. 
Diatomaceous  beds  in  California. 
Diatoms  contain  oil.|| 

*  Report  on  the  production,  technology,  and  uses  of  petroleum  and  its  products.  By  S. 
F.  Peckham.  Tenth  Census,  vol.  X.  Washington,  1884. 

Petroleum  and  natural  gas.  By  Joseph  D.  Weeks.  Eleventh  Census.  Report  on  min- 
eral industries,  425-578. 

Petroleum.  By  B.  Redwood  and  G.  T.  Holloway.  2  vols.  [Lippincott  Company,  Phila- 
delphia.] 

Le  petrole,  1'asphalte  et  le  bitume  au  point  de  vue  geologique.    Par  A.  Jaccard.    Paris, 

t  Composition  of  the  American  sulphur  petroleums.    By  C.  F.  Mabery.    Jour.  Franklin 

Inst.,  June-July,  1895. 
Several  articles  by  Sadtler,  Peckham,  and  Day,  in  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1897,  XXXVI, 


t  The  origin  of  petroleum.    By  O.  C.  D.  Ross.    Geol.  Magazine,  1891,  pp.  506-508. 

Beitrage  zur  Theorie  der  Petroleumbildung.    Von  Leopold  Singer.    Wien,  1893. 

On  the  origin  of  petroleum.  By  Richard  Anderson.  Trans.  Geol.  Soc.  Glasgow,  1871-74, 
IV,  174-177. 

Petroleum:  its  history,  origin,  occurrence,  etc.    By  Wm.  Brannt.    Philadelphia,  1894. 

I  Geological  probabilities  as  to  petroleum.  By  Edward  Orton.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  Amer- 
ica, 1898,  IX.  85-100. 

||  Canadian  Diatomaceag.    By  W.  Osier.    Canadian  Naturalist,  1870,  V,  new  ser.  143. 


t  ILL—    \  7 


<^~  ut   n 

•    ~J  V    /2**-i^~  , 


;  £>f  10. 


206  PETROLEUM. 

Geology. 

Oil  and  gas  in  sedimentary  rocks  of  almost  all  ages. 

Diffused  through  many  rocks  where  it  is  now  useless ;    possibility  of 

distilling  oil-bearing  shales.* 
Association  of  gas,  oil,  and  salt  water;  necessity  of  studying  them 

together. 
Essential  conditions  are  the  same  in  all  fields. t 

Rocks  containing  accumulations  of  oil  and  gas  are  : 

1.  Conglomerates  or  porous  sandstones   (Pennsylvania,   New 

York,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky). 

2.  Porous  limestones  (Ohio  and  Indiana). 

Why  other  rocks  in  the  same  places  contain  no  oil  or  gas. 
Why  Trenton  limestone  yields  oil  in  some  places  and  not 

in  others. 
Origin  of  porosity  of  sandstone ;  porosity  of  limestone  due  to 

dolomitization ;  joint  cavities  in  shales. 
Theory  of  oil  caves ;  caving  of  crust. 
Importance  of  overlying '  impervious  beds  to  confine  oil  and 

gas. 
Relations  of  structure  to  accumulations  of  oil  and  gas.     (Figs.  120, 

121,  123.) 

Accumulations  are  local ;  not  found  wherever  the  rock  is  found. 
Why  oil  and  gas  accumulate  in  some  places  and  not  in  others. 
T.  S.  Hunt's  anticlinal  theory  of  oil.J 
Why  anticlines  are  only  locally  productive. 
How  monoclines  may  serve  the  same  purpose. 
Influence  of  gentle  and  violent  folds. 

How  folds  are  recognized  and  located. 

Oil  found  in  highly  disturbed  areas  pockety,  and  its  distribution  diffi- 
cult to  determine. 
Necessary  conditions : 

1.  Source  from  which  the  oil  is  distilled. 

2.  Adjacent  porous  rock  to  hold  it. 

3.  Impervious  cover. 

4.  Structural  features  favoring  accumulation. 
Where  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  not  to  be  sought. 

Crystalline  or  eruptive  rocks. 
Relations  of  oil,  salt-water,  and  gas. 

*  A  practical  treatise  on  mineral  oils  and  their  by-products.    By  I.  I.  Redwood.    London 

and  New  York  (Spon.). 
tThe  geology  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas.    By  W.  Topley.    Geol.  Magazine,  1891, 

VIII,  508-511. 
t  Petroleum  and  natural  gas.    [By  I.  C.  White.]    West  Virginia  Geol.  Survey,  1899,  I, 

223-378. 
Notes  on  the  history  of  petroleum  or  rock  oil.    By  T.  S.  Hunt.    Canadian  Naturalist, 

August,  1861,  VI,  249. 
The  anticlinal  theory  of  natural  gas.    By  I.  C.  White.    Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  Amer.,  1892, 

III,  204-216. 


208  PETROLEUM. 

Rock  pressure  of  oil  and  gas : 

In  western  Ohio  from  650  Ibs.  to  square  inch  down;  usually  be- 
tween 300  and  400  Ibs. 

In  Indiana  from  325  to  250  Ibs. 

In  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  the  highest  recorded  is  1000 
Ibs." 

The  highest  pressure  reported  is  1525  Ibs.  in  New  York  State. 
Origin  of  rock  pressure.* 

Lesley's  theory  of  expansion  of  gas. 

Orton's  theory  of  hydrostatic  pressure. 

Trenton  rocks  outcrop  on  Lake  Superior. 

Orton's  law :  Rock  pressure  of  Trenton  limestone  gas  is  due  to  a  salt- 
water column  measured  from  about  600'  a.  t.  to  the  level  of 
stratum  yielding  gas. 

How  practically  demonstrated. 

Why  oil  wells  of  Pennsylvania  are  "  watered  out." 

Applicability  of  this  law  modified  to  other  territories. 
Decrease  of  rock  pressure. 

In  Indiana  the  average  pressure  was  originally  (1888)  325  Ibs;  in 
1897  it  was  191  Ibs. ;  in  November,  1898,  it  was  173  Ibs.t 

Artificial  pressure  used. 

PETROLEUM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  salt  industry  the  forerunner  of  petroleum  industry. 

Boring  for  salt  water;  early  drill;  seed  bag. 
High  price  of  whale  oil. 
Oil  from  cannel  coal  and  shale. 
E.  L.  Drake's  successful  effort  to  get  oil  by  boring  at  Titusville,  Pa.,  in 

1859.  t 

Low  price  from  over-production. 
Spouting  wells;    spread  of  exploration. 
The  Pennsylvania, §  New  York,  West  Virginia  area. 

The  Pennsylvania  oil  field  centers  at  Oil  City;  the  West  Virginia  field 
at  Sisterville. 

First  considerable  flowing  well  struck  in   1861;  300  barrels  a  day. 

*  Consideration  of  the  pressure,  composition,  and  fuel  value  of  rock  gas.  By  J.  P. 
Lesley.  Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pennsylvania  for  1885,  pp.  657-680 

Origin  of  the  rock  pressure  of  natural  gas  in  the  Trenton  limestone  of  Ohio  and  Indiana. 
By  Edward  Orton.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  America,  1890,  I,  87-98. 

t  Twenty-third  ann.  rep,  Geol.  and  Nat  Hist.  Survey  of  Indiana,  1886.    Indianapolis,  1899. 

I  The  first  oil  well.    By  J.  S.  Newberry.    Harper's  Magazine,  Oct.,  1890,  LXXXI,  723-729 

The  oil  regions  of  Pennsylvania.    By  William  Wright.    New  York,  1865.     (275  pp.) 

\  Oil  and  gas  fields  of  Western  Pennsylvania  for  1887-88.  By  J.  F.  Carll.  Geol.  Survey 
of  Pennsylvania.  Harrisburg,  1890. 

The  oil  and  gas  regions.  By  J.  F.  Carll.  Part  II,  ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pennsyl- 
vania for  1886.  Harrisburg,  1887. 

Petroleum;  its  production  and  products  in  Pennsylvania.  By  A.  S.  Bolles.  Ann.  rep 
Bureau  of  Industrial  Statistics,  1892.  Harrisburg,  1893. 


210  PETROLEUM. 

Phillips'  well  3,000  barrels  a  day.     A  well  near  Bradford  that 
yielded  25,000  barrels  in  1875,  yielded  6,500,000  in  1878,  and 
23,000,000  in  1881. 
6,358  wells  put  down  in  1890. 
The  western  Ohio,  Indiana  area.* 

The  Ohio  oil  fields  center  at  Lima  ;  the  Indiana  fields  center  at 

Montpelier. 

Oil  and  gas  from  Trenton  limestone. 
Confined  by  Utica  shale. 
Rocks  gently  folded. 
In  1889  single  wells  in  Ohio  began  with  a  yield  of  10,000  barrels 

per  day. 

Colorado  region:  Florence,  between  Pueblo  and  Canon  City. 
Oil  from  Cretaceous  shales. 
General  structural  features. 
California  regions,  t 

Oil  from  the  Tertiary. 
Relations  to  diatomaceous  earths. 
Wyoming  district.  i 


Limits  of  the  supply  of  petroleum. 

Order  of  gas,  oil,  and  water  in  producing  wells. 

Sequence  of  their  exhaustion. 

Natural  process  of  distillation  slow. 

Good  but  dearer  oil  can  yet  be  manufactured  from  shale. 

Locating  oil  wells. 

How  far  geology  may  be  depended  upon. 

The  elements  of  uncertainty. 

Indications  of  oil  in    the  rock;  "Trenton  rock";  "surface   indica- 

tions." 

Oil  may  or  may  not  appear  at  the  surface. 
Method  of  drilling. 

Growth  of  deep  well  drilling  in  America. 

Determining  the  geological  position  of  the  drill. 

The  use  and  preservation  of  borings. 

*  Report  of  the  Geol.  Survey  of  Ohio.    Vol.  VI,  Economic  geology.    By  Edward  Orton. 

Columbus,  1888. 
The  Natural  gas  field  of  Indiana.    By  A.  J.  Phinney.    Eleventh  ann,  rep.  U.  S.  Geol. 

Survey,  1889-90,  pp.  617-742. 

First  ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Ohio.    By  E.  Orton.    55  et  seq.    Columbus,  1890. 
Petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  asphaltum  in  western  Kentucky.    By  E.  Orton,    Frank- 

fort, 1891. 
t  Oil-  and  gas-yielding  formations  of  Los  Angeles.Ventura,  and  Santa  Barbara  counties, 

California.    By  W.  L.  Watts.    Bui.  11,  Calif.  State  Mining  Bureau,  1896. 
The  genesis  of  petroleum  and  asphaltum  in  California.    By  A.  S.  Cooper.    Bui.  16,  Calif. 

State  Mining  Bureau.    San  Francisco,  1899. 
I  The  petroleum  of  Salt  Creek,  Wyoming.    Petroleum  series,  Bui.  I  of  the  School  of 

Mines,  University  of  Wyoming.    Laramie,  1886. 


1 


<i-i  —  t-—  ^ 


c**-p  r 


212 


PETROLEUM. 


Fig.  119.— The  petroleum  yield  of  the  States  since  1859. 

In  some  rocks  one  well  drains  five  acres ;  others  fifty. 

Oil  and  gas  drawn  from  the  lands  of  others  without  redress. 

How  torpedoes  increase  or  decrease  the  flow  of  wells. 

Transportation  of  petroleum. 

Originally  in  barrels,  then  in  tank  cars ;  dangers  and  losses. 
Now  about  25,000  miles  of  pipe  in  Pennsylvania  fields. 
Pumping  from  the  oil  fields  of   Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana,  through  pipe  lines  to  the  sea-boai'd  at  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago. 
Pumping  stations  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  miles  apart,  according  to 

grade. 

in  uJ/w    -,TM.,    vU.f.  ;U-C    )kw  'i.v/v     '--,' 

Refining  petroleum. 

Importance  of  oil  due  largely  to  its  being  refined. 

Effect  of  good,  cheap  light  on  civilization. 
Limestone  oils  contain  more  sulphur. 

These  were  first  used  for  lubricating;    in  1893  most  illuminating 

oils  from  these. 
Special  values  for  certain  oils:  lubricating;  lighting;  fuel. 


214 


PETROLEUM. 


PETROLEUM  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 
Russia. 

One  of  the  greatest  known  oil  fields  is  about  Bakou  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
at  the  southeast  end  of  the  Caucasian  Mountains.* 

Oil  from  Tertiary  rocks ;  wells  averaged  715 '  in  1891;  formerly  much 
less. 

Yield  from  about  1800  acres. 

From  pumped  wells  water  and  oil  come  together. 

Product,  2,000,000  barrels  in  1880  to  33,355,669  barrels  in  1893. 


Figs.  120,  121.— Cross-sections  showing  the  geological  structure  of  the  oil-bearing  strata 
in  the  Trans-Caucasian  region,  Russia.    (Konchin.) 

Burma's  petroleum  comes  from  Miocene  rocks. 

Galicia,  on  the  north  flank  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  produces  petro- 
leum from  Tertiary  rocks.  Gentle  anticlines;  shallow  wells;  oil 
viscous. 

The  following  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the 
minor  oil-producing  countries : 
Barrels. 

Canada 798,406  in  1893 

709,857  in  1897 

Peru 350,000  in  1890 

68,452  in  1897 

India 146,107  in  1891 

430,203  in  1896 

Roumania..  ..383,227  in  1890 

570,886  in  1897 

*  The  Industries  of  Russia.  Mining  and  metallurgy.  By  A.  Keppen.  pp.  81-90.  St. 
Petersburg,  1893. 

De  Tiflis  a  Bakou.  Gisements  de  naphte  de  Bakou.  Par  A.  Konchin.  Guide  des  Ex- 
cursions du  VII.  Congres  G6ologique  International,  XXIV,  art.  St.  Petersburg, 
1897. 

Bakou  and  its  oil  industry.    Nature,  July  9,  1896,  p.  232. 


216 


PETROLEUM. 


Fig.  122. — Comparative  yield  of  petroleum  of  the  chief  producing  countries  since  1859. 


218 


NATURAL    GAS. 


Natural  Gas. 

Advantages  as  a  fuel : 

Readily  transported;    no  refuse;    easily  regulated;    boilers  and 

grates  last  longer. 
In   1885  natural  gas  about  Pittsburg  replaced  3,650,000  tons  of  coal, 

and  displaced  5000  men. 
1889  it  replaced  coal  as  follows : 

In  Pennsylvania  $11,593,989  worth. 

In  Ohio  5,123,569 

In  Indiana  2,002,762 

Two  modes  of  occurrence  : 

1.  In  shales  and  limestones. 

2.  Reservoir  gas  in  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and  certain  dolo- 

mitic  limestones. 


Fig.  123.— Section  through  Findlay,  Ohio,  showing   the  anticline  at  whose  crest  the 
great  oil  and  gas  wells  are  located.    (Orton.) 

The  relations  of  geological  features  of  natural  gas  to  those  of  petro- 
leum. 

Wells  at  crowns  of  anticlinal  domes  last  longest. 

Small  quantities  of  gas  of  common  occurrence  and  no  importance. 

Characteristics  of  shale  gas.* 

1.  It  is  of  small  volume. 

2.  It  lacks  uniformity  of  pressure,  t  , 

3.  The  gas  comss  from  no  definite  horizon. 

4.  Often  independent  of  the  oil  production. 

5.  It  has  good  staying  properties. 

6.  It  is  not  dependent  upon  structure. 


the  lola  (Kansas)  gas  field.    By  Edward  Orton.    Bui.  Geol. 
9,  X,  99-106. 

t  Hydrostatic  vs.  Hthopiestic  theory  of  gas  well  pressure.    By  A.  M.  Miller.    Science, 
February  1900,  XI,  192-3. 


Geological  structure  o 
Soc.  of  America,  18 


220 


NATURAL    GAS. 


Characteristics  of  reservoir  gas. 

1.  The  largest  known  wells  are  of  this  kind. 

2.  Pressure  uniform. 

3.  Gas  is  at  definite  horizons. 

4.  Oil  accompanies  the  gas. 

5.  Geologic  structure  is  of  great  importance. 

The  waste  of  natural  gas. 

The  store  of  natural  gas  is  limited ;  so  excellent  a  fuel  should  not  be 

wasted. 
Murraysville  well  in  Pennsylvania  played  into  the  air  for  six  years  at 

the  rate  of  20,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day. 
In  188o  the  waste  of  gas  in  piping  distance  of  Pittsburg  was  70,000,000 

cubic  feet  per  day  ($3,500  of  coal  per  day). 

Gradual  exhaustion. 

Only  time  can  show  how  long  individual  wells  can  last. 
Natural  gas  prepares  the  way  for  artificial  gas. 


Fig.  124.— Value  of  the  natural  gas  in  the  chief  producing  States  since  1885. 


222  OZOKERITE. 


OZOKERITE  OR  OZOCERITE.* 

Ozokerite  or  mineral  tar  is  partially  oxidized  petroleum.     It  is  as  hard 
as  beeswax,  and  has  the  odor  of  petroleum. 

Uses. 

Its  principal  use  is  for  making  paraffine  candles;  other  uses  are  wax 
matches,  as  a  lubricant,  protecting  metals  from  rust,  and  for 
insulating  purposes,  calking  ships,  adulterating  beeswax,  mak- 
ing wax  dolls,  varnishes,  and  blacking. 

Occurrence. 

It  is  always  associated  with  petroleum  in  sedimentary  rocks. 

The  principal  known  deposits  are  in  the  Tertiary  sandstones  of  Gal- 
icia,  Austria,  north  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  where  it  fills 
thin,  irregular  veins.  It  gets  softer  with  depth  on  account  of 
the  greater  oxidation  near  the  surface. 

American  deposits. 

In  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  100  miles  east  of  Salt  Lake,  are  the  only 
known  American  deposits  of  any  importance;  they  are  not 
worked. 

It  probably  occurs  in  the  petroleum  and  asphaltum  regions  of  South- 
ern California. 

*  On  the  origin  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  bituminous  shales.  By  J.  S.  Newberry.  An 
nals  of  the  New  York  Acad.  of  Sci.,  1883,  II,  357-369. 

Notes  on  the  origin  of  bitumens.  By  S.  F.  Peckham.  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1865-68,  X, 
445-462;  1898,  XXXVII,  108-139;  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1869,  XCVIII,  420;  XL VIII,  362- 
370.  (Has  references.)  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1866,  XCII.  420. 

Sur.  les  gites  bitumineux  de  la  Jude~e.  Par  L.  Lartet.  Bui.  Soc.  Ge~ol.  de  France,  2me 
ser.,  1866,  XXIV,  12-32. 

A  treatise  on  ozokerkite.  By  Edgar  B.  Gosling.  The  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  No- 
vember, 1894,  XVI,  no.  1,  pp.  41-68. 


224  ASPHALT. 


ASPHALT.* 

Varities  of  asphalt  are  known  also  as  grahamite,  gilsonite,  unintaite, 
albertite,  wurtzilite,  elaterite,  etc. 

Asphalt  or  asphaltum  is  oxidized  petroleum  in  which  the  oxidation 
has  been  carried  further  than  in  ozokerite ;  it  is  brown  to  black,  brittle  to 
a  blow ;  melts  at  200°  F. 
Uses. 

Its  principal  use  is  street  paving. 

In  architecture ;  lining  reservoirs ;  foundations  for  heavy  machinery  ; 
coating  for  pipes,  piles,  and  paving  blocks,  wire  poles;  insulator. 
Occurrence. 

It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  mixed  with  more  or  less  earthy  matter  or 

impregnating  limestone  or  sandstone. 

The  most  important  asphalt  deposit  known  is  on  the  island  of  Trinidad 
off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  where  it  occurs  at  the  surface  like  a 
lake,  covering  116  acres. t 


Figs.  125-127. — Sections  illustrating   the   occurrence  of  asphalt  in  sedimentary 
and  in  a  crevice  cutting  such  strata. 


DEPOSITS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
California.!, 

The  most  important  asphalt  deposits  in  the  United  States  are  in  the 

Tertiary  rocks  of  California. 
Kern  county  :  in  veins  and  superficial  beds. 

*  The  production  of  an  asphalt  resembling  gilsonite  by  the  distillation  of  a  mixture  of 
fish  and  wood.  By  W.  C.  Day.  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1898,  XXXVII,  171-174. 

The  laboratory  production  of  asphalts.  By  W.  C.  Day.  Jour.  Frank.  Inst.,  September, 
1899,  CXLVIII,  205-239. 

Origin  of  grahamite.    By  I.  C.  White.    Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  Amer.,  1899,  X,  277-284. 

t  Trinidad  pitch.    By  S.  F.  Peckham  and  Laura  A.  Linton.     Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  March, 


idad  pit 
896,  CLI, 


1896,  CLI,  193-207. 
1  The  gas-  and  petroleum-yielding  formations  of  the  central  valley  of  California.    By 

W.  L.  Watts.    California  State  Mining  Bureau,  Bui.  no.  3.    Sacramento,  1894. 
The  genesis  of  petroleum  and  asphaltum  in  California.    By  A.  S.  Cooper.    California 

Mines  and   Minerals,  114-174.    San  Francisco,  1899.    Same    in  Bui.  16,  California 

State  Mining  Bureau,  San  Francisco,  1899. 
The  technology  of  California  bitumens.    By  S.  F.  Peckham.     Jour.  Frank.  Inst.,  July, 

1898,  CXLVI,  45-54. 


226 


Santa  Cruz  county:  bituminous  beds  are  mined. 

San  Luis  Obispo  county:  asphalt  occurs  in  strata  and  as  superficial 

deposits  from  springs. 
Santa  Barbara  county :  liquid  asphalt  and  asphalt  mixed  with  sand 

and  other  substances  found  in  veins  and  beds  and  in  sandstone 

and  shales. 
Ventura  county :  in  irregular  veins,  and  impregnating  sandstone. 


Fig.  128.— Section  near  La  Brea  creek,  Santa  Barbara  county,  California,  showing  the 
geological  structure  and  the  accumulation  of  bitumen.    (Cooper.) 

Other  States. 

The  only  other  States  that  have  produced  asphalt  in  commercial  quan- 
tities are  Kentucky,  Texas,  and  Utah;*  in  Utah  it  is  known  as 
gilsonite  and  uintaite. 

The  output  of  California  increased  from  $152,500  worth  in  1888  to 
$598,502  worth  in  1897. 

Value  of  asphalt  imported  since  1889: 

1889 $138,163  1896 $382,045 

1890 223,368  1897 417,865 

1891 299,350 

1892 336,868 

1893 196,314 

1894 313,680 

1895 247,214 


*  The  uintaite  deposits  of  Utah.    By  G.  H.  Eldridge.    Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol. 

Survey,  pt.  I,  915-949.    Washington,  1896. 
Mineral  resources,  1893,  pp.  627-669.    Washington,  1893. 
Uintaite,  albertite,  grahamite,  and  asphaltum.    By  W.  P.  Blake.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst, 

Min.  Eng.,  1890,  XVIII,  563-582. 


Fig.  129.— The  asphalt  and  bituminous  rock  product  of  the  United  States  since  1882. 


Fig.  130. — The  asphalt  and  bituminous  rock  yield  of  the  chief  producing  countries  since 

1890. 


230  SALT. 


SALT.* 

Common  salt  (NaCl)  as  a  geological  product  occurs  as  salt  water  or 
brine,  or  as  rock-salt  interstratified  with  sedimentary  rocks. 

Uses. 

Preserving  meats,  and  domestic  purposes. 
Manufacture  of  soda. 
Chloridizing  ores  in  metallurgy. 
Manufacture  of  chlorine;  glaze  of  pottery. 

Origin. 

By  the  natural  evaporation  of  salt  water. 

Thick  deposits  of  rock-salt  by  high  tides  flowing  into  closed  basins  in 

arid  regions,  or  by  evaporation  that  produces  a  constant  influx 

from  a  larger  to  a  smaller  basin. t 

Distribution. 

Salt  occurs  in  sedimentary  rocks  from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  those  now 

forming,  and  in  almost  all  countries. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  salt  deposits  known  are  those  of : 
Galicia  and  Transylvania  in  Austria-Hungary. 

At  Wieliczka,  Galicia,  it  is  mined  and  stoped  out  like  coal. 
The  Austrian  and  Bavarian  Alps. 

Western  Germany:  at  Sperenberg,  near  Berlin,  360CK. t 
Cardona,  near  Barcelona,  Spain :  open  quarry  of  rock-salt. 
Mined  in  Peru.§  * 

SALT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. || 
New  Forfc.lT 

Onondaga  district  near  Syracuse :  brine  from  the  Salina ;  rock-salt  to 
the  south. 

Warsaw  district  (in  Wyoming,  Genesee,  and  Livingston  counties), 
bed  of  rock-salt  in  the  Upper  Silurian  from  7Q/  to  318',  under- 
lying many  counties.  Shafts  825/-1430/  deep. 

*  Spons'  encyclopaedia  of  industrial  arts.    Salt,  II,  1710-1740.    London,  1882. 

t  Karamania.    By  F.  Beaufort.    283-84.    London,  1818. 

I  The  salt  deposits  of  Stassfurt.  By  H.  M.  Cadell.  Trans.  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.,  1885,  V,  pt. 
I,  92-103. 

g  A  Peruvian  salt  mine.  By  Robert  Peele,  Jr.  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  1893-94, 
XV,  219. 

||  Salt-making  processes  in  the  United  States.  By  Thomas  M.  Chatard.  Seventh  ann. 
rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  497-535.  Washington,  1885-86. 

1i  Salt  and  gypsum  industries  in  New  York.  By  F.  J.  H.  Merrill.  Bui.  New  York  State 
Mus.,  Ill,  no.  II.  Albany,  1893. 

Report  on  the  geology  of  the  Livonia  salt  shaft.  By  D.  D.  Luther.  Rep.  State  Geolo- 
gist [of  New  York]  for  1893,  pp.  11-130.  Albany,  1894. 


232 


SALT. 


Michigan.* 

Rock-salt  and  brines  from  Carboniferous  limestone,  accumulating  in 

the  Marshall  sandstone. 

Structural  features  of  the  Peninsula  syncline. 
Why  the  deeper  brines  are  stronger. 

One  well  1964'  deep  found  32'  rock-salt  in  Manistee  county. 
Wells  average  880'  in  depth. 

Kansas,  t 

Rock-salt  horizon  of  the  Trias  underlies  many  counties  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts  of  the  State ;  deposits  lenticular,  from  a  few 
inches  to  200'  thick;  from 
400' -1000'   below  the   sur- 
face. 

Utah. 

Most  of  the  salt  is  made  from  the 

waters  of  Salt  Lake.i 
How  Salt  Lake  came  to  be  salty. 

Louisiana.  ** 

The  Petite  Anse  deposits;   Ter- 
tiary ;  structure. § 
The  chief  salt-producing  States : 


Fig.  131.— Section  showing  the  order  of 
the  deposits  accompanying  the  rock- 
salt  beds  of  Louisiana.    (Lucas). 


New  York  . . 
Michigan   . . . 

Ohio 

Kansas 

Utah... 


1887. 

...2,353,560  barrels. 
...3,944,309 
.    365,000 


325,000 


1897. 

6,805,854  barrels. 
3,993,225       " 
1,575,414      " 
1,538,327       " 
405,179       " 


*  Geological  studies.    By  A.  Winchell.    Geology  of  salt,  186-193.    Chicago,  1889. 

t  Geology  of  Kansas  salt.    By  Robert  Hay.     [No  date.] 

t  The  great  Salt  Lake.    By  J.  E.  Talmage.    Utah  University  Quarterly,  Sept.,  1896,  II, 

137-152. 
I  Rock-salt  in  Louisiana.    By  A.  F.  Lucas.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1899,  XXIX. 


234 


Fig.  132.— The  salt  production  of  the  United  States  since  1860. 


236 


SODA. 

[Most  of  the  soda  of  commerce  is  an  artificial  product  from  common 


Natural  soda  is  the  carbonate  (Na2CO8)  or  bicarbonate  (NaHC03)  of 
soda. 

Origin. 

It  is  produced  by  the  evaporation  and  concentration  of  surface  waters 

flowing  from  or  over  igneous  rocks  containing  soda. 
It  is  to  be  expected  in  any  country  where  the  geologic  and  climatic 

conditions  are  favorable. 

Natural  soda  in  the   United  Stalest 

It  forms  a  large  part  of  the  alkali  of  the  arid  regions  of  the  western 

United  States. 

Nevada :  two  lakes  at  Ragtown. 
California:  Mono  Lake,  Inyo  county. 
Oregon:  Abert  and  Summer  Lakes. 

t Natural  soda:  its  source  and  utilization.    By  Thomas  M.  Chatard.    Bui.  60,  U.S. 
Geol.  Survey,  27-101.    Washington,  1890. 


238 


BORAX. 

Borax  is  sodium  biborate  (Na2B4O7  +  Aq). 

Uses. 

Antiseptic. 

Manufacture  of  enamels  for  pottery. 

Manufacture  of  soap. 

Flux  in  metallurgy. 

Occurrence  and  origin. 

Most  of  the  borax  of  commerce  is  from  the  native  mineral  and  from 
Colemanite  (calcium  sodium  borate) .  The  native  mineral  occurs : 
In  the  dry  beds  of  old  lakes. 

As  crystals  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  borax  lakes. 
In  the  water  of  certain  lakes. 

The  borax  in  the  lake  waters,  in  the  mud  at  the  bottoms  of  the  lakes, 
or  in  the  ancient  lake  bottoms  has  been  concentrated  by  evapor- 
ation from  waters  containing  boron  in  solution. 
Occurs  as  geological  deposits  only  in  arid  regions. 
Thibet,  Chili. 

Borax  in  the   United  States.* 
California. 

Discovered  by  Dr.  Veatch  at  Borax  Lake,  Lake  county,  1856. 
Searles  Borax  marsh,  San  Bernardino  county,  the  dry  bed  of  an 

old  lake ;  shore  terraces  600'  above. 
Igneous  rocks  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Succession  of  deposits  in  bottom  of  the  valley. 
At  Calico,  San  Bernardino  county,  is  a  lime  borate  (Colemanite)  de- 
posit interbedded  with  other  sedimentary  rocks.    It  is  mined 
by  shafts  and  drifts. 
Death  Valley,  Inyo  county. 
Saline  Valley,  Inyo  county,  in  marsh. 
Water  pumped  from  wells  in  the  valleys  and  evaporated. 
Nevada. 

Lake  near  Ragtown ;  Sand  Springs. 
Oregon . 

Chetco  mine,  Curry  county,  priceite  as  boulders  from  a  few  ounces 
to  several  hundred  pounds. 

*  Borax.    By  Charles  G.  Yale.    Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1889-90,  pp. 

494-506. 
Report  on  the  borax  deposits  of  California  and  Nevada.    By  Henry  G.  Hanks.    Third 

ann.  rep.  State  Mineralogist  of  California.    Sacramento,  1883. 
Borax.    Fourth  ann.  rep.  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  80-93.    Sacramento,  1884. 


c.n 


, 

i      of    ' 


fc3«i- 


240 


BORAX. 


The  borax  industry  of  the  United  States  began  in  California  in  1865 ; 
the  product  in  1878  was  1401  tons. 
In  1888  was  3795  tons. 
In  1898  was  8000  tons. 


Fig.  133.— Borax  production  of  the  United  States  since  1870. 


242 


NITER. 


NITER  OR  SALTPETER. 

Niter  or  saltpeter  is  nitrate  of  potash  (KNO3). 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  fireworks. 

Medicinal  purposes. 

Antiseptic. 

Fertilizer. 

Occurrence  and  distribution.* 

It  occurs  mostly  in  surface  deposits ;  mingled  with  the  dry  earth  in 
caves ;  as  a  dirty  white  efflorescence  on  the  ground  in  arid  re- 
gions. Prepared  by  leaching. 

Relation  to  decaying  organic  matter. 

In  the  caves  of  Ceylon,  Teneriffe,  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil ;  Kentucky, 
Missouri. 

Stassfurt  mines  of  Germany. 

*  Sur  la  formation  des  terres  nitrges  dans  les  regions  tropicales.    Par  Muntz  et  Mar- 
cano.    Comptes  Rendus,  1885,  CI,  65;  CI,  1265. 


244  SODA    N1TKR. 


SODA  NITER. 

Soda  niter  is  sodium  nitrate  (Na.2O  +  NaO5) :  nitrogen  pentoxide  63.5, 
soda  36.5. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  nitric  acid. 
Potting  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Manufacture  of  potassium  nitrate. 
Medicine. 
Fertilizers. 

Occurrence.* 

In  the  deserts  of  northern  Chili  and  Bolivia. 

Associated  with  gypsum  and  salt. 

The  deposits  are  mostly  about  two  feet  below  the  surface. 

*  Nitrate  and  guano  deposits  in  the  desert  of  Atacama  (Chili).    By  A.  Pissis.    London 

1878. 
Recherches  sur  la  formation  des  gisements  de  nitrate  de  soude.    Par  A.  Muntz.    Comp. 

Rend.,  1885,  CL.  1265. 


246  BARYTES. 


BARYTES. 

Barite,  barytes,  or  heavy  spar  is  the  sulphate  of  barium  (sulphur  tri- 
oxide  34.3,  baryta  65.7). 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  paint  as  a  substitute  for  white  lead  or  zinc  oxide. 
Weighting  paper  and  putty. 

Lithophone,  used  as  a  pigment  for  special  purposes,  is  a  mixture  of 
barium  sulphate  (68%))  zinc  oxide  (7.28%),  and  zinc  sulphide 
(24.85%)- 

Occurrence  and  distribution. 

It  occurs  as  vein-stone  associated  with  ores  of  lead,  copper,  silver,  etc., 
as  pockets  in  limestone,  and  as  amygdules  in  eruptive  rocks. 
In  the  United  States  the  principal  deposits  worked  are  in  Mis- 
souri and  Virginia.  It  occurs  also  in  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  New  Jersey,  and 
many  other  States. 

In  Tennessee  it  is  mined  from  clays  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  containing  rock. 

Production  of  crude  barytes  in  the  United  States  in  1898  was  28,247 
short  tons,  worth  $112,988;  the  imports  in  1898  amounted  to 
2000  tons. 


•£Jfi  ^A-^.-KX,    £0,  (• 


\ 

248  SULPHUR. 


SULPHUR. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  gunpowder,  sulphuric  acid,  and  matches. 

Insecticide. 

Medicine. 

Occurrence. 

Native  and  in  combination  with  other  elements. 
Native  sulphur. 

1.  In  volcanic  regions  deposited  from  sulphurous  gases. 

2.  As  an  alteration  of  gypsum. 
Sulphur  of  organic  origin.* 

In  combination  its  most  important  form  as  a  source  of  sulphur  is 
that  of  iron  pyrites,  which  occurs  in  veins,  beds,  and 
irregular  pockets.  (See  Iron  Pyrites.) 

Distribution. 
Geologic. 

Native  sulphur  is  found  principally  in  Tertiary,  Pleistocene,  and 
recent  deposits. 

Geographic. 

Sicily  is  the  principal  source  of  native  sulphur. 

Mines  spread  over  5000  square  miles,  the  sulphur  occurring  in 
veins  and  masses  3'-10'  thick,  in  Miocene  limestone.    Some 
petroleum  and  bitumen  is  associated  with  the  sulphur. 
Crude  and  antiquated  methods  of  exploitation. 
Rock  containing  less  than  8%  sulphur  is  not  worked. 
Sulphur  deposits  of  Japan  of  the  solfatara  type. 

Island  of  Hokkaido  is  the  principal  source  of  supply. 
Mexico,  New  Zealand:  sulphur  occurs  about  several  volcanic  moun- 
tains ;  but  little  is  produced. 
In  Iceland  t  solfataric. 

New  Hebrides  Islands :  sulphur  occurs  on  a  volcanic  cone  on  the  Isle 
of  Tauna. 

Sulphur  in  the   United   States.* 

Large  deposits  on  Kadiak  Island,  Alaska;  not  worked;  deposits  also 
on  Unalaska. 


*  On  sulphur  formed  by  bacteria,  see  Amer.  Naturalist,  June,  1898,  XXXII,  456. 

t  Across  the  Vatua  Jokull,  or  scenes  in  Iceland.    By  W.  L.  Watts.    113-116,  129,  141 

London,  1876. 
%  Sulphur.    By  J.  F.  Kemp.    Mineral  Industry  for  1893,  II,  585-602.    New  York,  1894. 


250 


California :  in  connection  with  igneous  rocks  at  Sulphur  Bank,  Lake 
county ;  Colusa  and  Kern  counties  ;  western  rim  of  Salton  desert, 
San  Diego  county. 

Nevada:  in  Humboldt  mountains,  in  irregular  masses  associated  with 
gypsum. 

Utah :  the  largest  American  producer.  Cove  Creek  mines,  26  miles 
east  of  Black  Rock,  in  volcanic  region.  Gravels  overlie  volcanic 
tuffs;  sulphur  at  the  junction  of  the  two;  sulphur  rock  30' 
thick  and  less. 

Louisiana:  sulphur  deposit  interbedded  with  Pleistocene  sediments. 

Texas :  sulphur  occurs  near  Guadalupe. 


UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  OF  SULPHUR. 


Short  tons.  . 
Value  

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

136,748 
$1,613,754 

155,994 
$2,172,569 

158,934 
$2,454,073 

252  PYRITES. 


PYRITE  OR  IRON  PYRITES 

[Other  than  that  valuable  for  its  gold  or  other  metallic  contents.] 
Iron  pyrites  (FeS2  =  Fe  46.7,  S  53.3)  is  a  hard  brassy-yellow  mineral, 
usually  with  a  metallic  lustre. 

Uses. 

Pyrites  often  carries  gold,  or  other  metals  of  value,  but  where  these 
are  absent  it  is  often  mined  for  the  sulphur  contained,  for  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  Formerly  used  extensively  for 
the  manufacture  of  sulphur.  It  is  valueless  as  an  ore  of  iron  on 
account  of  the  sulphur  it  contains. 

Pyrites  carrying  less  than  40%  sulphur  is  not  salable. 

Occurrence. 

It  usually  occurs  in  veins  and  lenticular  masses,  but  it  is  not  limited 

to  these  modes  of  occurrence. 

Some  important  pyrite  deposits  are  bedded  deposits. 
Often  associated  with  slates,  schists,  and  gneiss  in  the  eastern  United 

States,  but  it  also  occurs  associated  with  other  country  rocks. 
It  is  common  in  many  mining  camps  of  the  country. 

Distribution. 

Pyrite  may  occur  in  rocks  of  any  geologic  age ;  it  is  also  widely  dis- 
tributed geographically. 
The  principal  producing  countries  in  the  order  of  their  output  in  1897 

were: 
France, 
Spain, 
Germany, 
United  States. 
United  States.* 

Pyrites  occurs  in  nearly  every  State.     It  is  mined  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  only  in  the  region  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  t 
Virginia :i  (Louisa  and  Prince  William  counties). 

*  R.  P.  Rothwell,  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1886,  pp.  650-675.    Wash- 
ington, 1887. 
H.  J.  Davis,  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1885,  pp.  506-517.    Washington, 

E.  W.  Parker,  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1895-96,  pt.  Ill,  973-977.  Wash- 
ington, 1896. 

t  The  pyrite  deposits  of  the  Alleghanies.  By  A.  F.  Wendt.  School  of  Mines  Quarterly, 
1885-86,  VII,  218-235. 

{The  pyrite  deposits  of  Louisa  county,  Virginia.  By  W.  H.  Adams.  Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1883-84,  XII,  527-535. 


254 


PYRITES. 


Massachusetts :  (the  Davis  mines,  Franklin  county)  supplies  90%  of 
ore  mined  in  this  country. 

Deposits  occur  also  in  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  North  Caro- 
lina,* South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas. 

PRODUCTION   AND   IMPORTS   OF   PYRITES   IN   THE   UNITED  STATES,  AND 
SULPHUR  DISPLACED  BY  IT. 


.United  States 
Year.                  production  —          Value. 
|    short  tons. 

Imports  —           Sulphur 
short  tons.  '     displaced— 
|      short  tons. 

1895....                                         101,495               1322,845 
1896   129,341                 320,163 
1897  <           160,385                 391,541 
1798  
1899  
1900  

213,287 

224,138 
290,692 

146,152 
159,149 
202,984 

Pyrites  deposits  of  North  Carolina.    By  A.  Winslow.    Ann.  rep.  N.  C.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Raleigh,  1886. 


256  FELDSPAIt. 


FELDSPAR.* 

Composition  of  three  kinds  of  feldspar. 

Orthoclase.  Albite.  Anorthite. 

Silica 64.7 68.7 ....43.2 

Alumina 18.4 19.5 36.7 

Potash 16.9 Soda.... 11. 8   Lime  ..  20.1 

Orthoclase  is  the  feldspar  of  commerce. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  glass. 

Manufacture  of  pottery ;  used  as  a  flux,  and  for  glazing. 

The  gem  "  moonstone." 

Occurrence. 

Feldspar  is  one  of  the   constituent  minerals   of   granites,  gneisses, 

and  syenites,  in  which  it  sometimes  occurs  in  segregations. 
Most  of  the  feldspar  of  the  United  States  comes  from  Connecticut. 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  t 
Annual  production  of  feldspar  in  the  United   States  is  about  23,000 

tons. 
The  price  at  Trenton  in  1898  was  from  $5  to  $9  per  ton. 

*  Feldspar;  its  occurrence,  mining,  and  uses.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins.    The  Mineral  Indus- 
try for  1898,  VII,  262-268. 

t  Clays  and  feldspars  of  southern  Pennsylvania.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins.    Mining  Bulletin, 
'Sept.,  1898,  IV,  106-107. 


258  FLUORITE. 


FLUORITE  OR  FLUORSPAR. 

Fluorspar  is  calcium  fluoride  (fluorine  48.9,  calcium  51.1)  ;  it  is  a  trans- 
parent or  semi-transparent  mineral  ;  is  brittle  and  easily  scratched  with  a 
knife.  Yellow,  white,  purple,  or  light  green  are  its  most  common  colors. 
The  colors  are  often  banded.  It  is  usually  found  crystallized  in  cubes. 

Uses. 

When  massive,  fluorspar  takes  a  very  fine  polish,  and  is  made  into 

vases  and  other  such  ornaments. 
The  principal  uses  are  : 

For  the  manufacture  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  for  which  the  purest 

qualities  are  used. 

As  a  flux  in  the  reduction  of  various  ores. 
It  is  especially  important  in  the  basic  open-hearth  steel  process, 

where  phosphorus  and  sulphur  are  removed  by  it. 
In  the  manufacture  of  opalescent  glass. 

Occurrence. 

Fluorite  is  limited  to  no  particular  kind  of  rock  or  mode  of  occurrence  ; 

it  occurs  sometimes  in  beds,  but  usually  as  a  veinstone  of  va- 

rious ores  in  gneiss,  slate,  limestone,  and  sandstone.     It  fre- 

quently constitutes  the  entire  mineral  of  a  vein. 

Fluorite  occurs  in  many  localities  in  the  United  States,  but  all  that  is 

produced  conies  from  the  Illinois*-Kentucky  locality. 
Illinois  :  (production  in  1897  approximately  2,500  tons,  worth  about 

$7.34  per  ton). 

In    Harden  county  (southern  Illinois),  near  Rosiclare,  are  exten- 
sive deposits  of  fluorite,  associated  with  galena  and  blende 
in  veins  following  fault  lines  in  Carboniferous  rocks. 
Kentucky  :  (production  in  1897  approximately  2,500  tons,  worth  about 

$7.34  per  ton). 

Crittenden  county  (in  "western  Kentucky,  south  of  the  Illinois  de- 
posits), has  large  vein  deposits,  similar  to  those  in  Illinois. 
The  fluorite  of  the  Illinois-Kentucky  locality  is  thought  by  Emrnons 
to  be  derived  from  the  associated  limestones. 

*  Fluorspar  deposits  of  southern  Illinois.    By  S.  F.  Emmons.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  1893-93,  XXI,  31-53. 


g. 


#• 
S )  ^k.  1  4. 


260  MINERAL    PIGMENTS. 


MINERAL   PIGMENTS.* 

Many  pigments  are  minerals,  either  natural  or  artificial  products. 
The  more  important  minerals  used  as  pigments  are  here  brought  to- 
gether for  convenience  of  reference. 

Antimony  is  a  constituent  of  antimony  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  antimony 
red. 

Arsenic  is  extensively  used  as  a  pigment,  especially  for  green  colors;  it  is 
a  component  of  emerald  green  (Paris  green),  Scheele's  green,  orpi- 
ment  (King's  yellow),  realgar,  Schweinfurth  blue. 

Barium  is  a  constituent  of  manganese  green  and  "  constant  white." 

Cadmium  is  used  in  making  cadmium  red. 

Calcium  is  a  constituent  of  Venetian  red. 

Gypsum  (calcium  sulphate)  is  used  in  making  "  terra  alba." 

Chromium  is  an  important  pigment  as  a  green  and  yellow.  It  is  a  con- 
stituent of  chrome  yellow  (lead  chromate),  "perfect  yellow"  (zinc 
chromate),  chrome  green,  Guinet's  green,  Mittler's  green,  Veronese 
green. 

Cobalt  is  used  in  making  yellow,  blue,  and  green  pigments;  cobalt  yellow, 
cobalt  green,  Gellert's  green,  cobalt  blue,  cerulean  blue,  Leitch's  blue. 

Copper  is  extensively  used  in  making  greens  and  blues.  It  is  a  constituent 
of  Bremen  green,  Brunswick  green,  Casselmann's  green,  Eisner's 
green,  emerald  green  (Paris  green),  Gentele's  green,  "  mineral  greens," 
Scheele's  green,  Alexandria  blue,  Bremen  blue,  Schweinfurth  blue. 

Graphite  paint  is  used  for  metal  exposed  to  the  weather. 

Jront  is  a  constituent  of  the  ochres,  of  Prussian  green,  Alexandria  blue, 
Antwerp  blue,  Chinese  blue,  Leitch's  blue,  Prussian  blue,  Indian 
red,  Venetian  red,  sienna,  umber. 

Lead  is  a  constituent  of  chrome  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  and  of  various  va- 
rieties of  white  (white  lead  is  lead  carbonate  or  sulphate),  Pattison's 
white,  red  lead  (lead  oxide). 

Magnesium  is  used  in  making  Indian  yellow. 

*  Spons'  encyclopaedia  of  arts  and  manufactures,  vol.  II,  1548-1556.    London,  1882. 

Paints  and  painting  materials.  By  H.  H.  Harrington  and  P.  S.  Tilson.  Bui.  44,  Texas 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Austin,  1898. 

The  chemistry  of  manufacturing  processes.  By  Blount  and  Bloxam.  XV,  449-367. 
Philadelphia,  1897. 

Paint  analysis.  By  Thomas  B.  Stillman.  the  digest  of  physical  tests,  1897,  II,  114-137. 
(Contains  bibliography.) 

Mineral  paints.  By  E.  W.  Parker.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1894-95,  pt. 
IV,  694-702.  Washington,  1895. 

Robert  Hay  in  Trans.  Kansas  Acad.  Sci.,  1893-94,  XIV,  243.    Topeka,  1896. 

t  Ochres  and  oxide  of  iron  pigments.  The  mineral  industry,  VII,  532-536.  New  York, 
1899. 

Metallic  paint  ores  along  the  Lehigh  River.  By  F.  A.  Hill.  Geol.  Survey  of  Pennsyl- 
vania for  1886,  pt.  IV,  1386-1408.  Harrisburg,  1887, 


262  MINERAL  PIGMENTS. 

Manganese  is  a  constituent,  of  manganese  green,  sienna,  and  umber. 

Potassium  is  a  constituent  of  cobalt  yellow,  Casselmann's  green,  Schwein- 
furth  blue. 

Tin  is  a  constituent  of  cerulean  blue. 

Ultramarine  is  a  combination  of  silica,  alumina,  sulphuric  acid,  soda,  iron, 
sulphur,  magnesia. 

Vanadium*  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  analine  black,  for  coloring  por- 
celain, and  in  metallurgy. 

Whiting  is  pure  chalk. 

Zinc  is  used  in  "  perfect  yellow,"  cobalt  green,  Gellert's  green,  methyl 
green,  zinc  white. 

*  Nature,  July  30,  1896,  LIV,  300. 


2(>4  ABRASIVES. 

ABRASIVES.* 

Diamond  Dust. 

(See  pages  174-178.) 


Corundum,  t 

Corundum  for  abrasive  purposes  ;    forms  not  available  for  precious 
stones  (see  page  180). 

Uses. 

Powdered  corundum  is  used  as  a  polishing  powder. 
Emery,  an  impure  variety  containing  iron  is  used,  as  a  polishing  pow- 
der and  in  making  abrasive  wheels  (emery  wheels). 

Occurrence. 

Corundum  occurs  in  crystalline  limestones  and  metamorphic  rocks 
(gneiss,  schists,  slates,  etc.).  It  occurs  at  various  places  in  the 
Appalachian  Mountain  region ;  emery  is  mined  at  Chester,  Mass., 
and  corundum  at  Laurel  Creek,  Georgia;  Corundum  Hill,  N.  C. ; 
at  Salida,  Colo.,  it  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein  in  gneiss. 

In  1898  4,072  tons  of  corundum  and  emery  were  produced  in  the  United 
States,  valued  at  about  $253,630. 

The  imports  of  emery  in  the  United  States  in  1898  were  valued  at 
$133,399. 

Corundum  was  discovered  in  Canada  in  1896. 


Garnet.* 

(Seepage  180.) 

Hardness  usually  6.5  to  7.5,  sometimes  nearly  8. 

Crushed  garnet  used  in  preparing  abrasive  paper  and  belts  for  various 
kinds  of  high  polishing,  especially  leather  in  boot  and  shoe  factories. 

*  Mineral  Industry,  VI,  11-26. 

t  Preliminary    report  on    the    corundum    deposits  of    Georgia.    By   Francis    P.   King. 

Georgia  Geol.  Survey,  Bui.  II.    Atlanta,  1894.    (Contains  bibliography.) 
Corundum  in  the  Appalachian  crystalline  belt.    By  J.  V.  Lewis.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  1895,  XXV,  852-906.    New  York,  1896.    (Contains  bibliography.) 
Mineral  Industry,  VII,  15-21. 

Corundum  in  Ontario.   By  A.  Blue.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1898,  XXVIII,  565-578. 
On  the  origin  of  corundum  associated  with  the  peridotites  of  North  Carolina.    By  J.  H. 

Pratt.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1898,  CLVI,  49-65. 

Corundum  mining  in  North  Carolina.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  April  23,  1898,  LXV,  490. 
Corundum  and  its  uses.    Nature,  April  13,  1899,  LIX,  558-559. 
Emery,  etc.,  in  the  Villayet  of  Aidin,  Asia  Minor.    By  W.  F.  A.  Thomse.    Trans.  Amer. 

Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1898,  XXVIII,  208-825. 
t  Garnet  as  an  abrasive  material.    By  F.  C.  Hooper.    School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  Jan., 

1895,  pp.  124-127.     New  York. 


U) ,  C, 


266  ABRASIVES. 

Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes  mined  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  is 
of  superior  hardness ;  it  occurs  in  pockets  in  hornblende-feldspar.  Pro- 
duct in  1892  about  2,000  tons. 


Sand.* 

The  principal  use  of  sand  as  an  abrasive  is  in  connection  with  gang- 
saws  in  sawing  marble,  limestone,  and  other  stones. 


Pumice,  t 

Pumice  is  a  very  porous  light  lava,  used  in  polishing  various  sub- 
stances ;  most  of  the  pumice  of  commerce  comes  from  Mt.  Vesuvius  and 
the  Lipari  Islands. 


Tripoli. 

Tripoli  is  fine  grained  infusorial  earth,  composed  of  the  siliceous  skel  - 
etons  of  microscopic  animals  and  plants. 

Uses. 

As  a  polishing  powder.     Its  grains  must  be  small  enough  to  produce 

110  perceptible  scratch  on  the  surface  being  polished. 
As  an  absorbent  for  nitroglycerin. 
In  blocks  for  blotters. 

Distribution  and  occurrence. 

Tripoli  is  found  in  the  United  States  in  Virginia  near  Eichmond  ;  in 
California  near  Monterey,  and  at  Crow's  Landing,  Stanislaus 
county;  in  Nevada.  In  Newton  county,  Missouri,  a  deposit  of 
siliceous  limestone  from  which  the  lime  has  been  leached  is 
called  tripoli. 

Deposits  of  siliceous  powder  found  in  Arkansas. 
Tripoli  is  limited  to  no  particular  geologic  horizon. 


Whetstones. i 

Most  whetstones  are  varieties  of  sandstone,  schist,  or  novaculite,  with 
silica  as  the  abrasive  element;  of  sedimentary  origin.  Their  abrasive 
powers  depend  largely  upon  the  size  and  sharpness  of  the  grit  grains. 

*  Carborundum,  crushed  steel,  and  chilled  iron  shot,  artificial  products,  are  largely 
used  as  abrasives,  for  purposes  similar  to  those  of  corundum,  sand,  etc. 

t  South  Italian  volcanoes.    Ed.  by  H.  J.  Johnston,    pp.  67-71.    Naples,  1891. 

I  Whetstones  and  the  novaculites  of  Arkansas.  By  L.  S.  Griswold.  Geol.  Survey  of 
Arkansas  for  1890,  III.  Little  Rock,  1892. 

The  whetstones  and  grindstones  of  Indiana.  By  E.  M.  Kindle.  Twentieth  ann.  rep. 
Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist,  Survey  of  Indiana,  1895;  pp.  329-368.  Indianapolis,  1896. 


268  ABRASIVES. 

Properties  of  whetstones. 

Effect  of  coarse-grained  and  of  fine-grained  stones  upon  tools. 
Uniformity  in  size  and  distribution  of  grains  essential. 
Effect  of  foreign  matter  between  grains. 

Compactness  of  the  stone  due  to  the  particles  being  cemented,  or  to 
their  being  jammed  together  with  or  without  cementing  matter. 
Character  of  grains. 

In  sandstones :  irregular  rough  grains. 

In  schists:  irregular  massive,  or  minute  angular  grains. 

Wear  of  whetstones. 

Should  be  faster  in  stone  than  in  metal,  to  prevent  glazing. 

Glazing  is  due  to  wearing  away  or  dulling  of  the  cutting  points,  clog- 
ging of  spaces  between  the  points,  or  both. 

Hard  fine  grained  stones  most  apt  to  glaze. 

Fast  wearing  stone. 

Slow  wearing  stone. 

Oilstones  so  called  because  oil  is  used  to  float  away  the  abraded  metal. 
They  are  very  fine  grained. 

Scythe-stones  may  be  used  dry. 

Water  is  sufficient  to  carry  away  the  metal  from  coarse-grained  stones. 

Varieties  of  whetstones. 

Sandstones  furnish  most  of  the  whetstones  of  the  United  States. 

Labrador  stone  from  Cortland  county,  New  York. 

Hindostan  stone  from  Indiana.* 

Adamscobite  stone  from  Pierce  City,   Mo. 

Schists  furnish  scythe-stones  especially. 

Whetslates. 

Novaculites.     The  novaculites  of  Arkansas  furnish  the  finest  oilstones 

and  honestones  in  the  world. 
The  Turkey  stone. 

Whetstones  of  the    United  States. 

Arkansas,  Indiana,  Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire  furnish  most  of  the 

whetstones  of  the  United  States. 
The  Arkansas   stone   (novaculites):    exceedingly   hard;    adapted    to 

grinding  fine-edged  tools  of  all  sorts. 
The  "  Arkansas  stone." 
The  "  Ouachita  stone." 
Indiana. 

Oilstones  obtained  from  Orange  county ;  very  fine  grained  sand- 
stone of  Carboniferous  age. 

*  At  an  Indiana  whetstone  quarry.    By  O.  C.  Salyards.    Stone,  1896,  XIII,  539-543. 


270  ABRASIVES. 

Vermont. 

Whetstones  and  scythe-stones ;  principally  mica  schists  of  Cam- 
brian and  Huronian  ages. 
New  Hampshire. 

Scythe-stones  and  other  whetstones  from  Grafton  county ;   mica 

schists  of  Huronian  and  Silurian  ages. 
Other  states. 

New  York  produces  Labrador  stone,  a  fine  grained  green  sand- 
stone, in  Cortland  county. 

Missouri  produces  Adamscobite  stone  at  Pierce  City. 
Ohio  (Berea,  Cuyahoga  county),  and  Michigan  (Grindstone  City, 

Huron  county),  furnish  sandstone  scythe-stones. 
Statistics. 


Grindstones. 

Grindstones  are  made  from  sharp-grained  compact  sandstones ;  grains 
should  be  of  uniform  size,  and  the  stone  should  be  soft  enough  to  wear 
without  glazing. 

Most  of  the  grindstones  of  the  United  States  are  produced  in  Ohio, 
Michigan,  South  Dakota,  and  California.  Other  states  supply  stones  for 
local  demands. 

Ohio. 

Grindstones  are  quarried  in  northern  part  of  state  from  Berea  Grit 
(Lower  Carboniferous).  Cuyahoga,  Lorain,  and  Summit  coun- 
ties are  the  principal  producers;  there  are  also  quarries  in  Stark 
and  Washington  counties. 

Michigan. 

Great  grindstone  quarries  at  Grindstone  City,  90  miles  north  of   Port 

Huron ;  fine-grained  sandstone  free  from  foreign  matter. 
Statistics. 


Millstones. 

Millstones  are  not  properly  abrasives.  They  are  made  from  hard, 
sharp-grained,  tough  rocks,  of  coarse  texture.  Conglomerates  are  fre- 
quently used. 

Millstones  in  the  United  States  are  produced  principally  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Ohio. 

Buhrstone  is  a  quartz  rock  with  an  open  cellular  structure  especially 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  millstones.  Best  qualities  of  buhr- 
stones  come  from  the  Paris  basin  (Tertiary).  Somewhat  similar 
stones  occur  in  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  South  Carolina. 


272  ABRASIVES. 

Uses. 

In  grinding  grain. 
Crushing  other  materials. 

Effect  of  the  roller  process  in  manufacture  of  flour  on  use  of  mill- 
stones. 


274  MARBLE. 


MARBLE.* 

"  Any  limestone,  whether  compact,  crystalline,  or  granular,  which 
will  receive  a  polish  and  is  suitable  for  ornamental  purposes,  is  considered 
a  marble." 

Uses. 

The  various  uses  of  ordinary  limestone. 
Monumental  and  decorative  interior  work ;  statuary. 
Adaptations  of  special  colors  and  varieties. 

Origin  and  occurrence. 

Marbles  are  mostly  metamorphosed  limestones,  and  originated  as  or- 
ganic sedimentary  beds. 
Forms,  structural  disturbances,  and  changes  of  the  beds. 

Kinds  of  marble. 

Marbles  vary  from  mottled  impure  limestone  to  the  finest  and  most 
highly  crystalline  white  varieties ;  from  white  through  all  mot- 
tled and  variegated  colors  to  black. 

Statuary  marble  must  have  a  perfectly  uniform  color  and  be  free  from 
flaws;  rare. 

Parian  marble  the  finest  statuary  marble;  supply  about  exhausted. 

Pentelican  marble  much  used  by  the  ancients. 

Cararra  marble,  from  the  Apennines,  used  almost  entirely  by  sculptors 
at  present.  Color  snow-white ;  texture  saccharoidal. 

Marbles  of  all  kinds,  mottled,  banded,  or  of  uniform  color,  are  used 
for  ordinary  interior  decorations.  Light  tints  most  used ;  black 
marble  rare. 

"Onyx"  marble,  a  crystalline  cave  deposit;  its  beauty  and  scarcity.! 

Distribution. 

Marble  has  a  very  general  distribution,  both  geologic  and  geographic. 
Foreign  marble  (principal  producers) : 

Austria,  Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal. 

These  countries  all  rich  in  marbles.     The  Italian  marbles  from 
the  Apennines,  used  for  sculpturing,  are  the  most  noted. 

*  Report  on  the  building  stones  of  the  United  States.  Tenth  census,  1880,  X,  1-393,  with 
plates. 

Stones  for  building  and  decoration.    By  George  P.  Merrill.    Pp.  83-166.    New  York,  1891. 

The  building  and  ornamental  stones  of  Great  Britain  and  foreign  countries.  By  Ed- 
ward Hull.  London,  1872. 

t  The  onyx-marbles.    By  Courtenay  De  Kalb.    Stone,  Nov.,  1898,  XVII,  397-405. 

Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1895,  XXV,  557. 

The  onyx  deposits  of  Barren  county,  Kentucky.  By  S.  S.  Gorby.  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour., 
June  17,  1899,  LXVII,  707-708. 


276  MAKBLE. 

Mexico.  A  large  deposit  of  marble,  called  "  Mexican  onyx  "  ;  this  de- 
posit practically  exhausted;  most  of  "Mexican  onyx"  from 
other  sources. 

Marble  of  the   United  States. 

The  principal  producing  states  are : 

Vermont:*  marble  "white,  clouded,  or  blue." 

Principal  quarries  at  Rutland. 
Tennessee  :t  marble  variegated;  of  Lower  Silurian  age;  extensive 

quarries  of  colored  marble. 

Georgia:!  the  same  marble  as  that  of  Tennessee. 
New  York.§ 

The  largest  quarries  are  at  Gouveneur,  where  the  "St.  Law- 
rence" marble  is  quarried. 
Production  of  marble  in  1897.  1898.  1899. 

Vermont $2,050,229 

Georgia 598,076 

Tennessee 441,954 

New  York 354,631 

Maryland 130,000 

Colorado 99,600 

Massachusetts...        79,721 
Pennsylvania  . . .        62,683 

California 48,690 

Arkansas||  marble  the  same  as  Tennessee  and  Georgia. 
Extent  of  the  Arkansas  marbles;  not  now  worked. 

*  Geology  of  Vermont.    By  A.  D.  Hager.    II,  751-780.    Claremoiit,  N.  H.,  1861. 

t  Geology  of  Tennessee.    By  James  M.  Safford.    Nashville,  1869. 

t  A  preliminary  report  on  the  marbles  of  Georgia.    By  S.  W.  McCallie.    Geol.  Survey 

of  Georgia,  Bui.  no.  1.    Atlanta,  1894. 
g  Building  stone  in  the  State  of  New  York.    By  J.  C.  Smock.    Bui.  no.  3,  New  York 

State  Museum  of  Nat.  Hist.    Albany,  1888. 
Building  stone  in  New  York.    By  J.  C.  Smock.    Bui.  of  the  New  York  State  Museum, 

II,  no.  10.    Albany,  1890. 
II  Marbles  and  other  limestones.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Arkansas 

for  1890,  IV.    Little  Rock,  1893. 


Fig.  134.— The  value  of  the  marble  quarried  in  the  United  States  since  1885. 


278  LIMESTONES   OTHER    THAN    MARBLES. 


LIMESTONES   OTHER  THAN  MARBLES.* 

Limestone  is  a  sedimentary  rock ;  it  is  composed  of  calcium  carbonate, 
often  with  magnesium  carbonate  ;  it  always  contains  impurities. 

Uses. 

For  building  purposes. 

Importance  as  a  building  stone. 

Crushing  strength  per  sq.  in.  from  62  samples,  14,545  Ibs.,  rang- 
ing from  about  5,000  Ibs.  to  25,000  Ibs. 
As  a  flux  in  smelting  ores. 
Lithographing. 
Lime;  cement. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  (marble  usually  used). 
Whiting  (from  chalk). 
Effect  of  limestone  on  the  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth  of  a  country. 

Origin. 

Organic. 

Kinds  of  organisms :  rhizopods,  pteropods,  and  heteropods  (deep 
sea);  corals,  echinoderms,  crustaceans,  bryozoans,  brachi- 
opods,  lamellibranchs,  gasteropods,  cephalopods  (off  shore 
or  comparatively  shallow  water) ;  calcareous  algae. 
Chemical. 
Methods  of  formation. 

Occurrence  and  distribution. 

Of  sedimentary  origin,  subject  to  laws  of  sedimentary  rocks. 
Universal  geographic  and  geologic  distribution. 
Approximate  thickness  of  limestone  formations. 

Varieties. 

Through  all  grades  from  calcareous  shales  and  sandstones  to  pure 

limestones. 

Shaly  limestones;  sandy  limestones. 
Crystalline  limestones  (mostly  marbles). 
Chalk. 
Oolitic  limestones  (Ex.  Bedford  stone). 

*  Report  on  the  building  stones  of  the  United  States.    Tenth  census,  1880,  X,  1-393,  with 

plates. 
Stones  for  building  and  decoration.    By  George  P.  Merrill.    Pp.  122-166.    New  York, 

1891. 
Marbles  and  other  limestones.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins.    Geol.  Survey  of  Arkansas  for  1890, 

IV.    Little  Book,  1893.   . 


280  LIMESTONES    OTHER    THAN    MARBLES. 

Lithographic  limestone. 
Dolomitic  limestone.* 

Dolomite  is  a  carbonate  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  with  the  propor- 
tions varying  1  to  1,  1  to  3,  or  1  to  5. 
Hydraulic  limestone. 

Prevalent  colors  in  limestones. 

•Blue,  gray,  buff,  white,  the  most  common. 
Alteration  of  colors  by  weathering. 

Principal  limestone-producing  states. 

Pennsylvania:  Lower  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Lower  Carboniferous 

limestones ;  used  largely  for  building,  and  as  a  flux  in  smelting. 

Indiana:  the  "Bedford  oolitic   stone  "t    (Lower   Carboniferous)  the 

most  important  in  the  state.     Principal  quarries   in  Lawrence 

and  Monroe  counties. 

Ohio:  Silurian,  Devonian,  Carboniferous  stone;  dull  in  color;  quar- 
ried in  various  parts  of  the  state ;  used  mostly  for  rough  work. 
Illinois :  largest  quarries  in  Will  county  (at  Lemont  and  Joliet) ;  Nia- 
gara group;  stone  light  drab,  fine  grained;  Trenton  limestone 
of  Jo  Daviess  county  also  important. 
Production  of  limestone  in  1897.  1898.  1899. 

Pennsylvania $2,327,870 

Indiana    2,012,608 

Ohio 1,486,550 

Illinois 1,483,157 

Missouri 1,018,202 

Other  states   6,494,274 


Lithographic  Limestone. 

Character  of  lithographic  stone. 

It  must  contain  no  grains  or  crystals. 

Distribution. 

The  lithographic  limestone  of  commerce  is  produced  at  Solenhofen, 
Bavaria;  it  is  of  Upper  Jurassic  age. 

Lithographic  limestone  found,  but  not  proved  commercially  important, 
in  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri,  Tennessee,  Texas.  Utah,  Virginia. 

*  The  origin  of  dolomite.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  May,  1895,  CXLIX,  426-427. 

Origin  of  the  dolomites.    By  Hall  and  Sardeson.    Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  America,  1894,  VI, 

193-198. 
tThe  Bedford  oSlitic  limestone  of  Indiana.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins  and  C.   E.  Siebenthal. 

Twenty-first  ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Indiana,  1896,  pp.  290-427. 


282 


LIMESTONES    OTHER    THAN    MARBLES. 


Lime. 

The  importance  of  lime. 

Lime  (CaO)  is  made  by  driving  off  the  carbonic  acid  (C02)  from  lime- 
stone. 

Uses. 

In  making  mortar  and  cements. 
Plastering,  whitewashing. 
As  a  fertilizer. 

Value  of  lime  as  a  fertilizer;  its  effect  upon  soil. 
As  a  disinfectant. 
Uses  in  chemistry. 

Kinds  of  lime. 

Common  limes. 
Hydraulic  limes. 

Characteristics  of  lime. 

Slaking. 

Rehardening  (setting)  with  foreign  substances. 

Sand  in  mortar  furnishes  points  on  which  the  lime  crystallizes  in 

setting. 
Lime  can  be  produced  in  any  locality  that  has  limestone. 

Importance  of  lime  in  engineering  works. 


Hydraulic  Limestone.* 

Hydraulic  limestone  contains  clay  and  furnishes  a  lime  that  will  set 
under  water. 

The  hydraulic  limestones  of  the  United  States  are  usually  shaly  and 
contain  considerable  magnesia. 

Used  for  making  hydraulic  lime  and  cement. 

ANALYSES. 


Rosendale, 

N.  Y.t 

New  York. 

Wisconsin. 

Magnesia  carbonate  23.92 

25.94 

29.19 

Silica  :          22.  14 

15.37 

17.56 

Alumina  )             „  on      f 
Iron  oxide  N           3'80     "( 

9.13 
2.25 

1.40 
2.24 

Water  and  organic  matter  1              .83 

1.20 

*  On  limes,  hydraulic  cements,  and  mortars.    By  Q.  A.  Qillmore.    Ninth  edition.    New 

York,  1888. 
t  Mineral  industry  for  1894,  III,  91. 


284  LIMESTONES    OTHER    THAN    MARBLES. 

Distribution. 

Geologic. 

Most  of  the  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  United  States  occurs  in 

Paleozoic  rocks. 
Geographic. 

Hydraulic  limestone  is  by  no  means  so  widespread  as  ordinary 
limestone.  The  principal  states  in  which  it  occurs  and  is 
utilized  are  New  York,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky  (Louisville 
region),  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois. 

Hydraulic  cement. 

Hydraulic  cement  is  made  from  hydraulic  limestone;  it  has  the  power 
of  setting  under  water. 

Composition. 

How  made.* 

Uses  and  importance. 

The  principal  manufacturing  district  is  Rosendale,  Ulster  county,  New 
York.  The  industry  was  established  there  in  1823.  The  output 
of  the  Rosendale  district  in  1848  was  190,000  barrels,  worth 
$260,000;  in  1898  it  was  3,245,225  barrels,  worth  $2,103,554. 

The  district  next  in  importance  is  that  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Louisville.  Its  output  in  1898  was  1,929,018 
barrels,  worth  $482,254. 


Chalk,  t 

Chalk  is  an  earthy,  white  limestone,  for  the  most  part  composed  of 
the  skeletons  of  minute  organisms. 
Mode  of  formation. 

Uses. 

For  making  whiting. 

For  crayons. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.* 

In  fertilizing. 

*The  manufacture  of  Rosendale  cement.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Oct.  16,  1897,  LXIV,  459. 
t  The  Neozoic  geology  of  southwestern  Arkansas.    By  R.  T.  Hill.    Geol.  Survey  of  Ark. 

for  1888,  II,  153-162.     Little  Rock,  1888. 

The  Niobrara  chalk.    By  Samuel  Calvin.     American  Geologist,  Sept.,  1894,  XIV,  14O-161. 
I  Portland  cement;  its  manufacture,  testing,  and  use.    By  D.  B.  Butler.    London  and 

New  York,  1899;  360  pages. 
The  science  and  art  of  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement,  with  observations  on  some 

of  its  constructive  applications.    By  Henry  Reid.    New  York,  1877. 
On  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.    By  John  C.  Branner.    Geol.  Survey  of  Ark. 

for  1888,  II,  291-303. 

Portland  cement.    A  monograph.    By  C.  D.  Jameson.    Iowa  City,  1895. 
Portland  cement.    By  S.  B.  Newberry.    Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt. 

Ill,  881-893.    Washington,  1896. 
American  cements.    By  D.  Cummings.    Boston,  1898. 


286  LIMESTONES    OTHER   THAN    MARBLES. 

Distribution. 
Geographic. 

England  and  France  are  the  principal  producers  of  chalk. 
Deposits  of  chalk  are  found  in  the  United  States  in  Arkansas,  Texas, 
Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 

Portland  cement   is  a  hydraulic  cement,   made  from  carbonate   of  lime 
(chalk)  and  clay.     "Not  over  thirty  or  forty  per  cent  of  ordinary 
Portland  cement  which  is  active  in  the  hardening  process.     The  rest 
is  inert  and  like  so  much  sand."* 
Methods  of  manufacture,  t 

Sixty  per  cent  of  silica  required  in  the  clay,  magnesia  limit  3%. 
The  cement  yield  is  about  60%  of  the  weight  of  the  chalk  and  clay. 

Uses  of  Portland  cement. 

In  mortar,  for  cementing  building  stones,  for  paving  purposes. 

Artificial  stone  for  building  purposes. 
Advantages  of  Portland  cement. 


Gyp  sum.  i 

Gypsum  is  a  soft  hydrous  sulphate  of  calcium,   varying  in   color- 
white,  red,  yellow,  brown,  blue,  black. 

Uses. 

In  manufacture  of  "  plaster  of  Paris, "§  and  cement  plasters.il 
As  "land  plaster." 
In  statuary  (alabaster). 

Varieties. 
Selenite. 

Fibrous  gypsum  (satin  spar). 
Alabaster.    ' 

Modes  of  occurrence. 

Usually  dull  colored ;  mixed  with  impurities ;  in  beds  often  of  great 

thickness,  interstratified  with  limestones,  clays,  and  salt. 
Origin  :  deposited  from  solution. 

*  J.  B.  Johnson..   Proc.  Amer.  Assoc.  for  Adv.  of  Sci.,  1898,  XL, VII,  244. 

t  History  of  the  Portland  cement  industry  in  the  United  States.    By  Robert  W.  Lesley. 

Jour.  Frank.  Inst.,  Nov.,  1898,  CXLVI,  324-318. 

t  Geology  and  mineral  resources  of  Kansas.    By  Robert  Hay.    Pp.  46-48.    Topeka,  1893. 
Mineralogy  of  New  York.    By  Lewis  C.  Beck.    Pp.  61-67.    Albany,  1842. 

I  Journal  Frank.  Inst.,  February,  1899,  CXLVII,  171. 

II  The  technology  of  cement  plaster.    By  P.  Wilkinson.    Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Nov.  12, 

Report  on  gypsum  and  gypsum  cement  plasters.    By  G.   P.  Grimsley  and  E.  H.  S. 
Bailey.    Univ.  Geol.  Survey  of  Kansas,  V.    Topeka,  1899. 


-         .  ^K   i3*~~£e~ . 
^c_.    ^ 


^  ,  / 


2<^/>^ 

-^    f  ?v(*  -V  ?£/> 


288  LIMESTONES   OTHER   THAN    MARBLES. 

Distribution. 

Gypsum  is  widespread,  geographically  as  well  as  geologically. 

Its  distribution  in  the  United  States  is  fairly  well  shown  by  the  fol- 

lowing statistics.* 
Principal  gypsum-producing  states  in  1897.          1898.  1899. 

Short  tons.  ** 

Michigan  ..........  94,874 

Iowa  ............  | 

Kansas  ..........  \  83'783 

New  York  .........  33,440 

Texas  .............  24,454 


12,309 
Indian  lerritory.) 

South  Dakota  ......  8,350 

Virginia  ...........  6,374 

It  is  quarried  somewhat  in  other  states. 

The  total  product  of  the  United  States  in  1897  was  288,982  tons,  worth 
$755,864. 

*  The  salt  and  gypsum  industries  in  New  York.    By  F.  J.  H.  Merrill.    Bui.  New  York 

State  Museum,  III,  no.  11.    Albany,  1893. 

Gypsum  in  Arizona.    By  W.  P.  Blake.    Amer.  Geologist,  Dec.,  1896,  XVIII,  394. 
The  origin  and  age  of  the  gypsum  deposits  of  Kansas.    By  G.  P.  Grimsley.    American 

Geologist,  Oct.,  1896,  XVIII,  236. 

Gypsum  in  Kansas.    By  G.  P.  Grimsley.    Kansas  Univ.  Quarterly,  1897,  VI,  15-27. 
Gypsum  in  Iowa.    By  C.  R.  Keyes.    Mineral  Industry,  1895,  IV,  377-388. 


UNITED  STATES 

KANSAS . 

MICHIGAN . 

NEW  YORK. 

IOWA- 

US.  IMPORTS. 


Fig.  I3a.— The  production  and  imports  of  gypsum  in  the  United  States  since  1880. 


290 


BUILDING    STONES    IN    GENEEAL. 


BUILDING  STONES  IN  GENERAL.* 

Few  kinds  of  stone  cannot  be  used  for  building ;  those  most  used  are 
granites,  sandstones,  and  limestones. 

Properties  to  be  considered  in  building  stones. 

Ability  to  withstand  weather,  t 

Ability  to  withstand  heat. 

Color. 

Hardness  before  and  after  being  worked. 

Density. 

Crushing  strength. 

Building  stones  are  seldom  subjected  to  more  than  from  one-sixth 
to  one-tenth  the  pressure  they  can  withstand. 

Stone  subjected  to  a  gradual  pressure  can  withstand  more  than 
the  same  stone  subjected  to  sudden  pressure. 

CRUSHING   STRENGTH    (LBS.  PER  SQ.  IN.)  OF   SOME  BUILDING   STONES. 


Granite. 


East  St.  Cloud,  Minn.. 
Mystic  River,  Conn... . 


/  28,000 
\  26,250 
1 18,125 
122,250 
FourcheMt..  Ark.  (Seyenite)  a3,620 

Cape  Ann,  Mass 19,500 

Vinalhaven,  Maine 15,698 

Penryn,  Cal 6,117 

Average  of  72  samples 17,591 

Average  of   37  Wisconsin  f  .>R  ,,,„ 
granites  and  rhyolites. .  ( <50-'>*a 


Bedford, Indiana.,  j 
Conshohocken,  Pa. 
Joliet,  Illinois.... 
Bloomington,  Ind. 
Ellettsville,  Ind.. 
Quincy.  Illinois  .. 

Average  of   62 
samples 

Average  of   31  ( 
in  Wisconsin] 


/    6,500 


Sandstone. 


16,340 
14,775 

i:!,75n 
13.5m 
9,787 

14,545 
25,102 


Belleville,  N.  J 
Albion,  N.  Y. . . 
Middleton.  Cor 

Berea,  Ohio. . . . 
Vermillion,  O. .. 
Portland,  Conn. . 
Average    of   100 

samples 

Avg.  45  in  Wis.I 


f  11,700 
(  10,250 
*13,500 
f    6,950 
t    5,550 
10,250 
7,840 
4,945 

9.046 

6,427 


Distribution. 

Stone  that  may  be  utilized  for  building  occurs  in  all  countries,  and  in 
almost  all  geologic  formations. 


*  Steinbruchindustrie    und    Steinbruchgeologie.    Technische    Geologic   nebst    prakti- 

schen  Winken  fur  die  Verwertung  Gesteinen.    Von  Dr.  O.  Herrmann.    Berlin,  1899. 
The  physical,  chemical,  and  economic  properties  of  building  stones.    By  G.  P.  Merrill. 

Special  publication  Maryland  Geol.  Survey,  II,  pt.  II.    Baltimore,  1898. 
The  collection  of  building  and  ornamental  stones  in  the  U.  S.  Nat.  Museum.    By  G.  P. 

Merrill.    Smithsonian  rep.,  1886,  pt.  II,  277-648.    Washington,  1889. 
Report  on  the  building  stones  of  the  United  States.    Tenth  census,  1880,  X,  1-393,  with 

colored  plates.    Washington,  1880. 

Stones  for  building  and  decoration.    By  George  P.  Merrill.    New  York,  1891. 
Stone.    An  illustrated  magazine,  issued  monthly.    Chicago,  Illinois. 
t  The  decay  of  the  building  stones  of  New  York  city.    By  A.  A.  Julien.    Trans.  N.  Y 

Acad.  Sci.,  1883,  II,  67-79,  120-138. 

Durability  of  building  stones.    By  H.  A.  Cutting.    Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  1881,  CXXI,  410. 
J  On  the  building  and  ornamental  stones  of  Wisconsin.    By  E.  R.  Buckley.    Pp.  390-394. 

Madison,  1898. 


292  BUILDING    STONES    IN    GENERAL. 


Granite. 

Granite  (average  8p.  gr.  2.66)  is  a  highly  crystalline  rock,  varying 
widely  in  texture  and  color,  with  quartz  and  feldspar  as  essential  constitu- 
ents; mica  and  hornblende  with  other  minerals  are  usually  present. 

Uses. 

In  massive  structures. 

As  an  ornamental  stone:  monuments;  interior  decorations. 

Damage  done  granite  buildings  by  fire. 

Varieties.    - 

Biotite  granite;  muscovite  granite;  hornblende  granite,  etc. 

Geologic  relations. 

Granites  may  be  of  any  age. 

They  occur  massive,  never  stratified;  often   as  cores  of   mountain 
ranges ;  sometimes  as  dikes. 

Distribution. 

Granite  has  a  general  distribution.     It  is  the  fundamental  rock  of  the 

earth's  crust. 
The  New  England  States  are  the  principal  granite  producers  of  the 

Union. 
Maine:  granites  gray  (largely),  pink,  and  red. 

Largest  quarries  at  Vinalhaven. 
Massachusetts :  Quincy  quarries  the  most  important ;  stone  coarse 

grained,  usually  dark  blue-gray. 
Rhode  Island :  principal  quarries  near  Westerly ;  biotite  granites, 

fine  grained ;  color,  pink  to  light  gray. 
Connecticut:  granite  and  gneiss,  fine  grained;  color,  mostly  light 

gray.     Used  locally. 
New  Hampshire:   granite  in  eastern  part  of  state;   color,  light 

gray,  white  ;  fine  grained. 

"  The  muscovite-biotite  granite  of  West  Concord." 
California  :*  granite  very  generally  distributed  through  the  state. 
Quarries  at  Rocklin  and  Penryn.     Stone  fine  grained :  color, 
"light  to  dark  gray." 

Quarries  near  Raymond  and  elsewhere  in  the  state. 
Georgia :  light-gray  granite  near  Atlanta. 
Granite  is  quarried  in  many  other  states,  but  to  a  less  extent. 

*  Folio  5.    Sacramento  folio,  California.    Geologic  Atlas  of  the  United  States.    By  the 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.    Washington,  1894. 


UttJU*, 


294 


BUILDING   STONES   IN    GENERAL 


Value  of  production 
Massachusetts 
Maine 
Vermont 
New  Hampshire 
Rhode  Islan.1     . 
Connecticut 
New  Jersey 
Georgia 
New  York 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware 
Maryland 
California 
Other  states  . 


in      1897. 
$1,736,069 
1,115,327 
1,074,300 
641,691 
629,564 
616,215 
561,782 
436,000 
422,216 
349,947 
272,469 
247,948 
167,518 
634,029 


1898. 


1899. 


Limestones.  ^ 

See  pp.  274-276,  "  Marble,"  and  pp.  278-288,  "  Limestones  other  th 
marbles." 


i;in 


Sandstones. 

Sandstones  are  fragmental  sedimentary  rocks  occurring  in  all  geologic 
formations,  having  quartz-sand  as  an  essential  constituent;  in  color  they 
vary  from  white  to  blue,  brown,  and  red;  color  and  adaptability  deter- 
mined largely  by  cementing  material.  Freshly  quarried  sandstone  usually 
soft,  owing  to  the  water  contained. 

Varieties. 

Quartzites. 

Flagstones. 

Freestones. 

Calcareous  sandstones;  ferruginous  sandstones. 

Other  varieties. 

Geologic  relations, 

Of  sedimentary  origin,  subject  to  the  conditions  of  other  sedimentary 
deposits. 

Sandstone  in  the   United  States. 

Sandstone  suitable  for  building  is  widely  distributed. 
Ohio :  most  important  quarries  in  the  Berea  Grit  (Lower  Carbonifer- 
ous) in  northern  part  of  the  state.     Stone  fine  grained ;  color, 
buff  to  blue. 


296  BUILDING    STONES   IN   GENERAL. 

Pennsylvania:  Triassic  sandstone.*  Principal  quarries  in  Dauphin 
county.  Color,  "deep  bluish-brown,  slightly  purple, "  with  red- 
dish-brown layers.  Sandstone  of  importance  in  the  Trenton 
formation. 

Connecticut:  Triassic  sandstone,  brown  and  red.     Quarries  at  Port- 
land most  important. 
New  York:f   Cambrian   sandstone   (Potsdam);    color,    very  light  to 

light  red;  very  hard. 
Upper  Silurian  (Medina)  sandstone;  gray  to  red;  rather  coarse 

texture. 

Devonian  (Hamilton)  sandstone;  color,  "dark  blue-gray";  com- 
pact, fine  grained. 

New  Jersey  :  Triassic  sandstone ;  red  and  dark  brown. 
Other  states. 
Value  of  product  in  .1897.  1898.  1899. 

Ohio $1,600,058 

New  York 544,514 

Pennsylvania 380,813 

Connecticut 364,604 

Massachusetts 194,684 

New  Jersey 190,976 

Other  states  .  .  789,796 


Other  Building  Stones. 

Conglomerates:  coarse  grains  or  pebbles,  held  together  by  some  cementing 

material;  breccias  are  conglomerates  in  which   the  fragments  are 

angular. 
Slates :{  metamorphosed  clay  shale,  usually  of  some  dark  color;  largely 

used  in  roofing. 

Other  uses:   tiles,  school  slates,  blackboards,  mantels,  flagging,  bil- 
liard tables.     Usually  found  in  regions  of  folded  rocks. 
Tuff:  consolidated  and  unconsolidated  volcanic  rocks  are  sometimes  used 

in  buildings.     Extensively  used  on  the  Santa  Fe  route  for  railway 

ballast. 

*  Building  materials  of  Pennsylvania.    I,  Brownstones.    By  T.  C.  Hopkins.    Appendix 

to  ann.  rep.  Pennsylvania  State  College  for  1890. 
t  Building   stone  in  the   State  of  New  York.    By  J.  C.  Smock.    Bui.  of  the  New  York 

State  Museum,  no.  3.    Albany,  1888. 
Building  stone  in  New  York.    By  J.  C.  Smock.    Bui.  of  the  New  York  State  Museum,  II, 

no.  10.    Albany,  1890. 
J  The  slate  regions  of  Pennsylvania.    By  Mansfield  Merriman.    Stone,  July,  1898,  XVII, 

77-90. 
The  strength  and  weathering  qualities  of  roofing  slates.    By  M.  Merriman.    Trans. 

Amer.  Soc.  Civil  Eng.,  1892,  XXVII,  332-349;  1894,  XXXII,  529-543. 
The  New  York  slate  industry.    By  J.  N.  Nevins.    Eng.  and  Min.  Journal,  May,  1899, 

LXVII,  587-588,  622. 


?   6- 


298  BUILDING    STONES    IN    GENERAL. 

Gneiss:  composition  same  as  granite,  but  it  shows  a  foliated  or  banded 
structure;  it  is  extensively  used  in  buildings  in  Brazil. 

Schists:  structure  similar  to  that  of  gneiss;  with  little  or  no  feldspar. 
The  schists  split  readily ;  much  used  for  flagging,  and  sometimes  in 
foundations. 

Syenite:  like  granite,  except  that  it  contains  no  quartz.  The  syenite  near 
Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  an  excellent  building  stone,  is  blue  or  gray 
in  color.  Average  crushing  strength  (per  sq.  inch  in  2-inch  cubes) 
33,620.  Used  in  buildings  and  paving.* 

Augite:  a  dark-colored  eruptive  rock,  usually  containing  magnesium  and 
iron.  It  is  used  some  for  buildings,  and  extensively  in  paving. 

Serpentine:  a  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia,  probably  derived  from  altera- 
tion of  eruptive  rocks;  color  usually  green  or  yellowish,  sometimes 
brown,  red,  or  almost  black;  variety  known  as  verde-antique  much 
used  for  interior  decoration. 
Its  softness  makes  serpentine  objectionable  for  decorations. 

*  The  igneous  rocks  of  Arkansas.    By  J.  Francis  Williams.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of 
Arkansas  for  1890,  II,  42-53.     Little  Rock,  1891. 


300 


KAOLIN. 

Kaolin  is  mostly  kaolinite,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  containing 
silica  46.5°/0,  alumina  39.5°/o>  water  14.0°/0.  Kaolin  always  contains  other 
substances  as  impurities.  Varieties  of  kaolin  with  water  varying  from 
7.49°/0  in  rectorite  to  24.46%  in  newtonite. 

Uses* 

The  finest  grades  for  making  fine  porcelain  and  chinaware. 

Kaolin  from  near  St.  Yrieix,  France,  used  for  the  Limoges  and 

Sevre  porcelain. 

The  common  grades  for  cream-colored  ware,  sanitary  ware,  and  other 
ordinary  grades  of  pottery,  and  for  decorative  tiles. 

Origin. 

Kaolin  is  formed  by  decomposition  from  aluminous  minerals,  especially 

from  the  feldspars. 
Composition  of  feldspar. 
Changes  necessary  to  produce  kaolin. 
Experiments  of  Daubree  on  pulverized  feldspar. 

Occurrence. 

1.  In  irregular  beds  in  decayed  granites,  porphyries,  and  gneisses. 

Quarries  near  St.  Yrieix,  France. 

Formerly  mined  at  Brandy  wine  Summit,  Pa.t 

Quarrying  and  mining  methods. 

Original  deposits  to  be  sought  only  in  rocks  whose  decay  would 
furnish  kaolin. 

2.  In  regular  sedimentary  beds  by  the  removal   and   deposition   in 

water  of  original  deposits. 
Examples  of  Arkansas  kaolins. 

Conditions  under  which  sedimentary  kaolins  may  be  formed. 
Determination  of  sedimentary  kaolin. 

Kaolin  may  occur  in  rocks  of  any  geologic  age,  and  in  any  part  of  the 
world  containing  rocks  capable  of  forming  it  upon  decay. 

•Kaolin;  its  occurrence,  technology,  and  trade.  By  T.  C.  Hopkins.  Mineral  Industry 
for  1898,  VII,  148-160. 

Trait6  des  arts  ce>amiques.     Par  A.  Brongniart.    Paris,  1854. 

Handbuch  der  gesammten  Thonwaarenindustrie.    Von  Bruno  Kerl.    Braunschweig,  1879. 

For  lists  of  books  on  pottery,  see  Bibliographic  C6ramique.  Par  Champfleury.  Paris, 
1881. 

Bibliography  of  clays  and  the  ceramic  arts.  By  J.  C.  Branner.  Bui.  143,  U.  S.  Geol. 
Survey.  Washington,  1896. 

t  On  Pennsylvania  kaolin  deposits.  By  J.  P.  Lesley.  Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Penn- 
sylvania for  1885,  pp.  571-614.  Harrisburg,  1886. 


302 


Treatment. 


Practically  no  kaolin  is  now  used  as  it  comes  from  the  ground. 

Hand  picking;  grinding;  settling;  addition  of  "flint"  or  quartz 

and  feldspar. 

Effect  of  drying  on  different  kaolins. 
Effect  of  burning. 
Loss  of  plasticity. 
Color  and  composition. 


Clay.* 

Clay  is  for  the  most  part  an  impure  kaolin,  formed  originally  in  the 
same  way. 

Examples  of  differences  shown  by  analyses. 
Clays  of  organic  origin. 

tfses.t 

Manufacture  of  common  bricks,  "vitrified"  bricks  for  paving,  tiles 
(drain  and  roof),  terra  cotta  (ornamental  and  architectural), 
common  pottery,  door  knobs,  chimney  pots,  sewer  pipes,  and 
playing  marbles. 

Refractory  purposes. 

Occurrence. 

Residuary  clays  from  the  decomposition  of  rocks  in  place. 

Forms  of  deposits  from  decay  along  the  outcrops  of  sedimentary 
rocks. 

Forms  of  deposits  from  the  decay  of  crystalline  rocks. 
Transported  clays. 

Forms  of  the  beds. 

Cause  of  areal  changes  in  the  characters  of  the  beds. 

Why  some  beds  are  thick  and  others  thin. 

Why  some  beds  are  hard  and  others  soft. 

The  loess  clays  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 

The  Milwaukee  brick  clays. 

Why  the  bricks  are  cream  colored. 
Formation  of  slates. 

*  Clay  materials  of  the  United  States.    By  R.  T.  Hill.    Mineral  resources  of  the  U.  S. 

for  1891,  pp.  474-528. 
t  Annual  reports  of  the  National  Brick  Manufacturers'  Association.  Indianapolis,  since 

1887. 

The  Clay  Worker  (Monthly).    Indianapolis,  since  1884. 
A  practical  treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  tiles,  terra-cotta.  etc.    By  C.  T. 

Davis.    Philadelphia,  1889. 


£—, 


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304  BAUXITE. 

Distribution. 

Clays  are  found  in  sedimentary  rocks  of  all  ages  and  in  all  countries. 
The  clay  industries  of  the  United  States. 
New  Jersey  :*  Trenton  potteries. 
Ohio :  East  Liverpool  and  Cincinnati  potteries. 
Missouri :  St.  Louis  brick  industries. 

The  value  of  the  clay  products  of  the  United  States  since  1889  has 
been  between  nine  and  ten  millions  of  dollars  annually. 


BAUXITE. 

Bauxite  is  hydrate  of  alumina;  essentially  alumina  73.9,  water  26.1%. 
It  is  massive,  oolitic,  or  earthy;  white,  gray,  or  red. 


Manufacture  of  alum,  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  aluminum,  and  as  a 
refractory  material  or  for  increasing  the  refractoriness  of  fire- 
clays. 

Occurrence. 

In  southern  France  in  massive  beds  at  the  junction  between  Triassic 
and  Jurassic;  in  Arkansas*  as  irregular  masses  in  Tertiary 
rocks,  sometimes  covering  several  acres;  in  Alabama  as  beds 
interstratified  with  Paleozoic  rocks. 

*  Report  on  the  clay  deposits  of  New  Jersey.    By  George  H.  Cook  and  J.  C.  Smock. 
Trenton,  1878. 

t  Aluminium :  its  history,  occurrences,  properties,  metallurgy,  etc.    By  J.  W.  Richards. 

Philadelphia,  1890. 
I  The  bauxite  deposits  of  Arkansas.    By  J.  C.  Branner.    Journal  of  Geology,  1897,  V, 

no.  3,  pp.  263-289.     (Bibliography.) 


306  ALUMINUM. 


ALUMINUM.* 

Uses. 

Conductor  of  electricity. 
Manufacture  of  alloys. 

Aluminum-copper  alloys.  j,_>  xywa  '' 

Aluminum-iron  alloys. 
Manufacture    of    articles  requiring  strength   and    lightness    and    of 

articles  that  should  not  corrode. 
The  high  price  of  aluminum  prevented  its  general  use  until  a  few 

years  ago. 

Metallic  aluminium  or  aluminum  does  not  occur  in  nature ;  the  metal  has 
been  known  since  1827,  but  it  is  only  since  1889  that  the  price  of  it 
has  been  below  $2.00  per  pound.     It  was  formerly  made  from  cry- 
olite; it  is  now  made  from  bauxite. 
Cryolite  (fluorine  54.4,  aluminum  12.8,  sodium  32.8)  was  formerly  used 

in  the  manufacture  of  aluminum. 

The  largest  known  deposits  of  cryolite  are  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land, 12  miles  from  Arksuk,  where  it  occurs  in  a  granite  vein 
in  gneiss. t 
Aluminum  is  now  made  from  bauxite, t  which  is  called  aluminum  ore. 

(See  page  304.) 

Aluminum  can  be  made  from  kaolin  and  common  clays,  but  the  cost 
of  extraction  from  these  substances  is  much  greater  than  from 
bauxite. 

*  Aluminium:  its  history,  properties,  etc.  By  J.  W.  Richards.  Seconded.  Philadel- 
phia, 1890;  third  ed.,  Philadelphia  and  London,  1896;  666  pages. 

The  properties  of  aluminum,  with  some  information  relating  to  the  metal.  By  A.  E. 
Hunt,  J.  W.  Langley,  and  C.  M.  Hale.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1890,  XVIII, 


t  On  the  cryolite  of  Evigtok,  Greenland.   By  J.  W.  Taylor.    Proc.  Geol.  Soc.  of  London, 

1856,  XII,  140-144. 
t  The  preparation  of  alumina  from  bauxite.    By  James  Sutherland.    Eng.  and  Min. 

Journal,  Oct.  3,  1896,  LII,  320-322, 


A»»*y-vvi      C^t»-. 

»  f 


UNITED  STATES 

GERMANY 

ti  SWITZERLAND 

ffi±t!  FRANCE 

E.NOLAND 


Fig  136  —The  aluminum  output  of  the  chief  producers,  and  its  market  price  per  pound 
since  1889. 


GLASS-SAND. 


GLASS-SAND.* 

The  essential  constituent  for  manufacturning  glass  is  silica;  it   is 
found  as  loose  sand  or  as  more  or  less  compact  sandstone. 
Purity  of  sand  necessary. 

ANALYSES  OF  GLASS-SAND. 


Constituents 

Isle  of  Wight         France 

Silica  

97.0                      98.8 

Moisture  
Oxide  of  iron  and 

magnesium  

1.0                        0.5 
2.0                        0.7 

100.0                     100.0 

Distribution. 

Sand  that  may  be  used  for  making  glass  has  a  very  general  distribu- 
tion. England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Sweden,  and  Canada  are  all  rich  in  glass-sand.  It  may  occur  in 
rocks  of  any  geologic  age. 

Glass-sand  of  the   United  States. 

New  Jersey  has  extensive  deposits  of  Tertiary  age.. 
Pennsylvania :  Oriskany  sandstone  in  Mifflin  county. 
West  Virginia :  Oriskany  sandstone  in  Morgan  county. 
Indiana:  Madison,  Parke,  Clark,  and  Harrison  counties. 
Michigan  :  glass-sands  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan. 
California :  recent  sands  near  Monterey. 

Wisconsin :  glass  made  from  the  St.  Peter's  and  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone. 

Missouri :  at  Crystal  Springs  in  Jefferson  county. 
Iowa:  Lower  Silurian  (St.  Peter's  sandstone). 

*  Geol.  of  New  Jersey,  1868,  pp.  690-695,  and  293.    Newark,  1868. 

Geol.  Survey  of  Missouri,  1855-1871,  pp.  62,  129,  200,  273,  289,  302.    Jefferson  City,  1873. 
Geol.  Survey  of  Missouri,  1872,  p.  289.    New  York,  1873. 

Geol.  and  natural  history  of  Indiana.    Twelfth  ann.  rep.,  1882,  p.  22.    Indianapolis,  1883. 
Geol.  of  Wisconsin,  1873-77,  II,  290,  546,  558.    Madison,  1877. 

Second  Geol.  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  1888-89.    Rep.  F  3,  pp.  271-274,  288-292.    Harris- 
burg,  1891. 

Iowa  Geol.  Survey.    First  ann.  rep.  for  1892, 1,  24-25.    Des  Moines,  1893. 
Tenth  census,  1880,  II,  1029-1152. 


310  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 


REFRACTORY  MATERIALS.* 

Refractory  materials  are  substances  of  various  compositions,  capable 
of  withstanding  high  temperatures  without  fusing. 

Uses. 

They  are  used  for  lining  furnaces,  stoves,  and  chimney  backs,  and 
making  crucibles,  hearths,  retorts,  and  the  like;  clay  of  low 
refractoriness  is  used  for  making  sewer  pipes  and  "  vitrified  " 
paving  bricks. 

Composition. 

(Some  infusible  substances  are  not  mentioned  here  because  they  are 

not  practically  available.) 

Refractory  materials  vary  greatly  in  composition. 
Aluminous:  fire-clay,  bauxite,  kaolin. 
Magnesian:  asbestos,  magnesite,  talc. 
Carbonaceous :  graphite. 
Calcareous :  pure  lime. 
Siliceous:  pure  quartz  of  Dinas  brick. 
The  refractoriness  of  most  substances  depends  upon  their  purity. 

Pure  lime  highly  refractory  alone ;  a  flux  with  certain  other  sub- 
stances. 

Magnesia  refractory  alone ;  a  flux  in  combination. 
Pure  silica  used  for  Dinas  brick;  lowers  refractoriness  of  other 
substances. 


Fire-Clay  .t 

Clays  and  kaolins  are  hydrous  silicates  of  alumina.     Fire-clays  proper 
are  clays  that  do  not  fuse  readily. 

Fire-clays  may  occur  with  sedimentary  rocks  of  any  age. 

How  deposited. 

Why  so  abundant  in  the  Carboniferous. 

Structural  features. 

Varying  degrees  of  refractoriness. 

*  Metallurgy.    By  John  Percy.    Refractory  materials :  crucibles,  furnaces,  fire-bricks, 

etc.,  pp.  87-154.    London,  1875. 

Fuel  and  refractory  materials.    By  A.  Humboldt  Sexton.    London,  1896. 
t  Determining  the  refractoriness  of  flre-clays.    By  H.  O.  Hofman  and  C.  D.  Demond. 

Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1894,  XXIV,  42-66. 
Die  feuerfesten  Thone.    Von  Dr.  Carl  Bischof.    Leipzig,  1876. 


312  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

Refractoriness  determined  by  composition  and  physical  condition. 
Fluxing  influence  of  the  common  constituents  of  clays  on  a  silicate  of 
alumina  determined  by  Bischof. 

(20  of  magnesia 
28  of  lime 
31  of  soda 
-    -•     =     •  |  40  of  iron  oxide 

(47  of  potash. 
Bischof 's  formula  based  on  chemical  composition  is  as  follows: 

Refractoriness  =  M    *  g8.Q    X  0.2759. 

[M  =  (0.6  X  Fe-jO,)  +  (0.857  X  CaO)  +  (1.2  X  MgO) 
+  (0.5092  X  K2O)  +  (0.7729  X  Na,O).] 

According  to  this  formula  fire-clay  of  Cheltenham,  Mo.,  has  re- 
fractoriness of  0.86;  Stourbridge  best  clay,  1.28;  clay  for 
vitrified  brick,  0.24  to  0.34. 

Wherein  analyses  of  clays  may  not  be  trusted. 

The  refractoriness  of  a  single  clay  varies  with  physical  condition. 
Use  of  "grog"  or  "  chamotte." 

Increase  of  refractoriness  of  clay  by  the  use  of  bauxite. 
Paving-brick  made  of  fire-clay  of  low  refractoriness. 
How  to  lower  or  raise  refractoriness. 


Magnesite.* 
(Carbonate  of  magnesia:  magnesia  47.6;  carbon  dioxide  52.4.) 

Uses. 

Refractory  material  in  basic  hearths  of  steel  furnaces  and  fireproof 

buildings. 

Bleaching  agent  in  making  wood-pulp  paper. 
Manufacture  of  magnesium  salts. 
Manufacture  of  carbonic  acid  for  artificial  mineral  waters. 

Occurrence  and  distribution. 

Associated  with    serpentines,  talcose  schists,   and   other  magnesian 

rocks,  in  thin  veins  and  strings. 

Mined  near  Veitsch,  Austria,  and  made  into  fire-brick. 
At  Bolton,  Canada,  deposit  said  to  be  60'  thick. 
In  Silesia,  Germany,  deposits  at  Grochau  and  Baumgarten. 
In  Greece  as  veins  in  serpentine. 

*  A  history  and  description  of  magnesia,  and  its  base  and  compounds.    By  Henry  G. 

Hanks.    San  Francisco,  1895. 
Magnesite  in  India.     Eng.  and  Min.  Journal.  Dec.  3,  1898,  LXVI,  669. 


314  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

In  United  States  associated  with  serpentine  beds  on  Staten  Island ;  in 
California  in  Fresno,  Alameda,  Napa,  Santa  Clara,  San  Mateo, 
and  other  counties.  It  can  probably  be  found  as  white  veins  in 
serpentine  wherever  the  latter  occurs.  It  is  worked  only  in 
California. 
The  California  output  in  1898  was  1,263  tons,  worth  $19,075. 

In  January,  1900,  crude  German  magnesite  was  worth  $12.00  per  ton 
and  magnesite  bricks  $185.00  a  thousand  in  New  York. 


Chrysotile  ( "Asbestos  "  ).* 

Commercial  "asbestos  "  is  chrysotile,  a  fibrous  variety  of  serpentine. 
Silica  44.1,  magnesia  43.0,  water  12.9. 

Uses. 

Steam  packing;  covering  for  boilers,  steam  pipes,  hot-water  pipes; 
fireproofing  buildings  and  safes;  gas  stoves  and  fireplaces,  fire- 
proof cloth  (theatre  curtains) ;  weighting  silks. 

Distribution  and  occurrence. 

It  occurs  in  narrow  veins  in  serpentine  rocks;  the  veins  but  few 

inches  wide ;  fibers  cross  the  veins. 
Method  of  mining. 
Nearly  all  the  asbestos  used  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Quebec, 

Canada,  which  produces  85%  of  the  world's  supply. 
California  produced  10  tons  in  1898,  as  against  1,200  tons  in  1882  and 

100  tons  in  1888. 
The  imports  of  asbestos,  including  manufactured  articles,  were  valued 

at  $3,221  in  1877;  at  $140,845  in  1887;  and  at  $268,264  in  1897. 
Imports  of  asbestos  into  the  United  States  from  Canada : 

1870 $  7  1898 $ 

1880  9,736  1899 

1890 257,879  1900 

1897 190,971  1901... 


Talc.t 

Talc  is  also  known  as  soapstone  and  steatite;  its  composition:  silica 
63.5,  magnesia  31.7,  water  4.8. 

>.  *  The  mining  industries  of  eastern  Quebec.    By  R.  W.  Ells.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng.,  1889-90,  XVIII,  320-328. 
Notes  on  asbestos  and  asbestlfonn  minerals.    By  G.  P.  Merrill.    Proc.  U.  S.  National 

Museum,  1895,  XVIII,  281-292.    Washington,  1896. 
t  Genesis  of  the  talc  deposits  of  St.  Lawrence  county.    By  C.  H.  Smyth,  Jr.    School  of 

Mines  Quarterly,  July,  1896,  XVII,  333.    (References.) 

/Talc  and  soapstone.    By  C.  A.  Waldo.    The  Mineral  Industry,  1893,  II,  603-^06. 
/    Report  on  the  talc  industry  of  St.  Lawrence  county.    By  C.  H.  Smyth,  Jr.    Fifteenth 
ann.  rep.  State  Geologist  [of  New  York]  for  1895,  pp.  661-671.     Albany,  1897. 


-  1L 

» 


316  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

It  is  used  for  cooking  utensils,  heating  stoves,  furnace  linings,  for  fire- 
proof paints,  adulterating  soap.     Fibrous  talc  is  used  for  weight- 
ing paper,  in  paints,  and  for  making  wall  plasters. 
It  occurs  in  large  beds,  usually  in  regions  of  metamorphic  rocks. 

St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y.,  principal  producer  of  talc.  Mined  at 
Talcville  in  400'  shafts;  vein  18-20',  with  granite  walls. 
The  output  of  fibrous  talc  in  1897  was  57,009  tons,  worth 
$396,936. 


Graphite. 

(For  geology  of  graphite,  see  pp.  200-202.) 

Theoretically  graphite  is  pure  carbon,  but  analyses  of  a  large  number 
of  samples  show  it  to  contain  at  most  from  80  to  99%  carbon. 

Used  for  making  crucibles  ;  mixed  with  clay  and  turned  on  a  wheel 
like  pottery;  £*/>-'«  £T;  fr 


Lime. 

(For  geology  of  limestone,  see  p.  278.) 

Lime  alone  "  is  one  of  the  most  refractory  substances  known,  and  no 
temperature  has  as  yet  been  attained  which  has  caused  it  to  exhibit  the 
slightest  indication  of  fusion."  —  Percy,  134. 

Crucibles  made  of  unslacked  lime  are  made  by  sawing  the  lumps  in 
blocks  and  boring  cavities  in  center. 


Silica. 

The  Dinas  fire-brick  made  of  quartz-sand  (96.73-98.31°/0  pure  silica) 
from  the  Millstone  Grit,  in  the  Vale  of  Neath,  near  Swansea,  Wales.  They 
expand  on  being  heated;  fire-clay  bricks  contract.  Silica  bricks  cannot 
be  used  where  the  slag  contains  metallic  oxides. 

Any  pure  quartz  may  be  used  to  manufacture  silica  bricks.  Fire-clay 
is  used  to  hold  the  sand  together.  Styrian  silica  bricks. 

Availability  of  novaculites. 

Occurrence  and  distribution  of  novaculites. 


Chrome  Iron;*       •  -<  ^ 

Chrome  iron  has  lately  come  into  use  for    furnace  linings.    It  is 
crushed,  washed,  and  made  into  bricks  for  this  purpose. 

*  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Feb.  6,  1897,  LXIII,  136. 


"    ^ 

^..r^j,.^.     X'-'i/v^     X-VT-    /'ry.  .L  VA< 

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318  KEFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 


Mica.* 

Uses. 

The  large  sheets  of  mica  are  used  for  stove  and  furnace  doors ;  covers 
for  the  eyes  of  persons  working  at  certain  trades. 

Scrap  mica  is  ground  up  and  used  for  insulating  and  fireproofing,  and 
for  a  lubricant;  also  for  an  absorbent  of  nitroglycerin,  in  wall- 
paper, and  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze  powder.  , 

3'<~-    -->  vv^kXiw*   /U~~-/W^>     xn'vx    jd*v^'«J-       xv-^^Av—^, 

Composition  and  character.  • 

The  mica  of  commerce  is  Muscovite,  and  has  the  following  theoretical 
composition:  Silica  45.2,  alumina  38.5,  potash  11.8,  water  4.5%. 
Its  transparency  and  flexibility. 

Occurrence. 

Mica  occurs  of  commercial  importance  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
in  New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina ;  in  the  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota ;  in  northern  New  Mexico  and  western 
Idaho. 

Found  in  pegmatite  dikes  in  Archean  gneisses  and  granites,  generally 
cutting  across  the  schistosity  of  the  rocks. 

"Books"  or  crystals  are  scattered  through  the  mass,  though  some- 
times near  the  walls. 
Usually  less  than  1%  of  mica  in  the  rock;  sometimes  as  high  as 

10%. 

Of  the  mined  mica  only  from  1  to  10%  is  valuable  as  sheet  mica. 
The  mica  imported  into  this  country  comes  chiefly  from  Great  Britain, 

Canada,  and  the  East  Indies. 
In  January,    1900,   the   price  of  mica  in  New  York  was  for  sheets 

1>£X3  in.,  60  cents,  and  sheets  8X10  in.,  $13.00  per  pound. 
The  value  of  the  mica  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1880  was 

$127,825;  in  1890,  $75,000;  in  1898,  $131,098.     The  imports  were 

valued  at  $12,562  in  1880,  at  $207,375  in  1890. 

*  Tenth  Census,  1880,  XV,  833. 

Mica  and  mica  mining.    By  C.  Hanford  Henderson.    Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  1892,  XLI,  652. 

The  mica  veins  of  North  Carolina.     By  W.  C.  Kerr.     Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 

1879-80,  VIII,  457-462. 
Geology  of  the  mica  deposits  of  the  United  States.    By  J.  A.  Holmes.    Eng.  and  Min. 

Journal,  Feb.  11,  1899,  LXVII,  174. 


J      '    /~ 

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320  NATURAL    FERTILIZERS. 


NATURAL  FERTILIZERS.* 


Mineral  Phosphates.! 

Apatite. 

The  mineral  phosphate,  apatite,  contains  theoretically  42.3%  phos- 
phoric acjd,  55.5°/0  linie,  and  3.8%  fluorine.  Analyses  show 
from  39  to  41.37%  phosphoric  acid. 

Found  in  crystalline  and  stratified  rocks,  but  more  plentifully  in  the 
former,  especially  in  metamorphic  limestone,  in  gneiss  and 
schist. 

Apatite  both  massive  and  crystalline ;  some  crystals  very  large,  550  Ibs. 

Canadian  deposits}  in  Quebec  and  Ontario  in  metamorphosed  Laur- 
entian  rocks,  usually  associated  with  limestone. 

In  forms  of  veins,  beds,  and  irregular  pockets  from  an  inch  to  many 
feet  thick. 

Methods  of  mining  and  preparing. 

Apatite  lands  generally  of  little  value  for  other  purposes. 

Effect  of  Florida  phosphate  discoveries  on  Canadian  apatite  business. 

Phosphorite. 

Phosphorite  includes  the  vitreous,  earthy,  scaly,  and  fibrous  forms  of 

apatite. 
It  is  found  in  Spain,  Germany,  and  near  Bordeaux,  France,  in  veins 

and  pockets.    Not  found  in  United  States. 


Rock  Phosphates. 

Rock  phosphates  have  not  the  structure  or  composition  of  a  definite 
mineral. 

Nodular  phosphates. 

Nodules  rolled  and  irregular  in  shape,  varying  in  weight  from  a  few 

grains  to  several  tons. 
Formed  by  erosion  of  marl  beds. 

Artificial  concentration  at  Bel  garde. 

*  The  American  Fertilizer,  an  illustrated  magazine,  published  at  Philadelphia. 

Mineral  phosphates  as  fertilizers.  By  H.  W.  Wiley.  Year-book  U.  S.  Dept.  Agricul- 
ture, 1894,  pp.  177-192. 

t  Nature  and  origin  of  deposits  of  phosphate  of  lime.  By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.  Bui. 
46,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.  Washington,  1888.  (This  work  contains  a  full  bibliog- 
raphy of  the  subject  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication.) 

The  phosphates  of  America.    By  Francis  Wyatt.    Fifth  edition.    New  York,  1894. 

Florida,  South  Carolina,  and  Canadian  phosphates.  By  C.  C.  Hoyer  Millar.  London, 
1892. 

I  Apatite  deposits,  Ottawa  county,  Quebec.  By  J.  F.  Torrance.  Geol.  Survey  of  Can- 
ada, 1884,  J. 


322 


NATURAL    FERTILIZERS. 


Local  accumulations  or  concentrations  on  land  or  in  stream  beds  in 

South  Carolina. 

Worked  in  South  Carolina  only  since  1868. 
Dredged  from  streams  or  dug  from  open  pits. 
Burning  off  12  to  18%  of  water. 

In  Florida  the  phosphates  are  in  Eocene,  Miocene,  and  recent  deposits.* 
As    pockets    in    lime- 
stone. 
Prospected    by    shafts 

and  bore  holes. 
Loose  local  accumula- 
tions of   nodules 
and  boulders. 
Disintegrated  rock. 

Deposits  often 
cover  several 
acres ;  5-50' 
thick. 

Mined  in  open  cuts. 

As  pebbles  in  existing 

streams ;  dredged 

out. 

Tennessee t  phosphates  are 

in  Devonian  shales. 
Horizontally    bedded 
rocks,  locally 
rich. 

Form  of  the  outcrop; 

tracing  the  beds. 

To  be  worked  like  coal 

mines. 

Fertilizer  works  are  at 
Boston,  New 
York,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore, 
and  Charleston. 

The  phosphates  of  Arkan-        '  : 7 

Fig.  137.— The  phosphate  rock  production  of 
sas.  the    United  States  since  1871. 


'  Florida  land  pebble  phosphate.    By  W.  B.  Phillips.    Eng.  Min.  Journal,  Feb.  17,  1900, 
LXIX,  201-2. 


By  T.  C.  Meadows  and  L.  Brown.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 


t  The  phosphates  of  Tennes 

Min.  Eng.,  1894,  XXIV,  582-594. 
The  white  phosphates  of  Tennessee.    By  C.  W.  Hayes.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng., 

1895,  XXV,  19-28. 

The  Tennessee  phosphates.    By  C.  W.  Hayes.    Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur- 
vey, pt.  II,  513-550.    Washington,  1896. 
New  source  of  phosphate  rock  in  Tennessee.    By  J.  M.  Safford.    Amer.  Geologist,  Oct., 

1896,  XVIII,  261-264. 


324  NATURAL    FERTILIZERS. 


Guano. 

Guano  is  bone  phosphate  of  lime,  with  hydrous  phosphates  and  im- 
purities. 

Deposits  formed  of  the  excrement  of  birds. 

Considerable  beds  on  islands  off  the  coast  of  Peru.* 
These  deposits  are  preserved  by  the  arid  climate. 

Irregular  in  form. 

Ammonia  and  phosphorus  the  fertilizing  ingredients. 

Beds  not  extensive,  and  supply  limited. 


Greenland  Marls. 

Greensands,  or  glauconite  marls,  are  soft  sedimentary  deposits  whose 
fertilizing  ingredients  are  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime.  They  occur 
in  regular  apparently  horizontal  beds,  in  Cretaceous  rocks  of  New  Jersey,  t 
Tertiary  of  North  Carolina,  Eocene  Tertiary  of  South  Carolina,  and  prob- 
ably throughout  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  areas  of  the  South  and  South- 
west. 

Value  of  marls  to  agriculture  of  New  Jersey. 
1,080,000  tons  dug  in  New  Jersey  in  1882. 
Method  of  using. 

Value:  will  not  bear  much  transportation. 

Treatment  of  greensands   at   Belgarde,   France,   to  save   phosphatic 
nodules. 


Gypsum. 

(See  pp.  286-288.) 

Gypsum,  or  "  land  plaster,"  occurs  in  regular  stratified  beds.     It  is 
quarried  and  crushed  before  it  is  put  on  the  market. 

Extensively  quarried  in  New  York,  Nova  Scotia,  Sandusky,  Ohio; 

Michigan,  and  Kansas. 
(For  lime,  see  p.  282;  for  chalk,  see  p.  284;  for  niter,  see  pp.  242-244.) 

*  Note  on  Clipperton  Atoll.    By  W.  J.  Wharton.    Quarterly  Journal  Geol.  Soc.,  May 

2,  1898,  LIV,  228-229. 
Phosphatic  guano  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.    By  J.  D.  Hague.    Amer.  Journal  Sci., 

1862,  LXXXIV,  224-243. 
t  Origin  and  classification  of  the  greensands  of  New  Jersey.    By  W,  B.  Clark.    Journa.1. 

(Jeol.,  February-March,  1894,  II,  161-177. 


326  MONAZITE. 


MONAZITE.* 

Monazite  is  a  phosphate  of  cerium,  lanthanum,  and  didymium,  but  it 
contains  a  small  amount  of  thoria,  which  makes  it  valuable  for  its  present 


Uses. 

For  making  the  mantels  of  incandescent  gas  burners. 

Occurrence. 

It  occurs  as  small   crystals  scattered  through   certain   granites  and 


After  the  decay  of  the  rocks  the  monazite  is  mechanically  concen- 

trated by  water. 

Formerly  mined  in  North  Carolina!  from  small  placer  deposits. 
The  largest  monazite  deposits  known  are  in  the  beach  sands  of  the 

coast  of  Brazil  near  Prado,  285  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Bahia. 

The  sands  are  derived  directly  from  the  Cretaceous  sediments 

that  form  the  shore  bluffs,  but  these   sediments  are  derived 

from  the  older  crystalline  rocks. 
The  first  shipments  from  Brazil  sold  for  $425.00  a  ton;  in  January, 

1900,  monazite  was  quoted  in  New  York  at  $140.00  a  ton. 

*  Monazite.    By  L.  M.  Dennis.    Mineral  Industry  for  1897,  VI,  487-494. 

Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Jan.  28,  1898,  LXV,  132;  April  8,  1899,  LXVII,  407. 

t  The  monazite  districts  of  North  and  South  Carolina.    By  C.  A.  Mezger.    Trans.  Amer. 

Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1895,  XXV,  822-826. 
Monazite.    By  H.  B.  C.  Nitze.    Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  IV,  667-693. 

Washington,  1895.     (Contains  bibliography.) 
Monazite  and  monazite  deposits  in  North  Carolina.    By  H.  B.  C.  Nitze.    Bui.  9,  North 

Carolina  Geol.  Survey.    Winston,  1895. 


~ 


$28  ROAD    MATERIALS. 


ROAD  MATERIALS.* 

Reference  is  here  made  only  to  road-metal  or  top-dressing  for  common 
macadam  or  telford  roads. 

The  essential  qualities  of  good  road-metal  are :  that  it  pack  hard  and 
smooth ;  that  it  resist  the  wear  of  traffic  and  of  weather ;  that  it  pro- 
duce as  little  dust  and  mud  as  possible. 

Toughness  as  against  hardness  and  brittleness. 

Inferior  materials,  t 

Materials  that  fail  to  meet  the  above  requirements  are  more  or  less 

objectionable. 
Feldspathic  rocks  on  decay,  or  when  powdered,  form  kaolin,  a  very 

sticky  mud  when  wet  and  fine  dust  when  dry. 
Syenite  (80%  feldspar),  granite,  gneiss. 

Clay  shale  composed  of  clay ;  when  crushed  makes  mud  or  dust. 
Limestone  too  soft,  though  much  used ;  easily  ground  to  mud  and  dust. 
Clean  sandstone  has  no  binding  and  is  too  loose. 
Clean  hard  pebbles  from  stream,  if  alone,  do  not  pack  readily. 

Superior  materials. 

Gravels  of  hard  rock  with  binding  materials. 

Paducah,  Ky.,  gravels  cemented  by  iron. 
Sandy  shales. 

Mauch  Chunk  red  shales  of  Pennsylvania  with  iron  cement. 
Chert  gravel,  natural  or  artificial. 

Good  roads  of  the  chert  region  of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Ten- 


How  the  gravels  accumulate  in  streams. 
Necessity  of  screening  them. 
Fresh  gravel  from  the  zinc  regions  of  Missouri. 
Influence  of  the  lime  in  hardening. 

*  Geology  of  the  road-building  stones  of  Massachusetts,  with  some  consideration  of  simi- 
lar material  from  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  By  N.  S.  Shaler.  Sixteenth 
ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1894-95,  pt.  II,  277-341.  Washington,  1895. 

Die  Baumaterialien  der  Steinstrassen.    Von  E.  Dietrich.    Berlin,  1885. 

Bulletins  of  the  Office  of  Road  Inquiry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  common  roads.    By  N.  S.  Shaler.    Scribner's  Magazine,  Oct.,  1889,  VI,  473-483. 

Roads  and  road-making.    By  F.  V.  Greene.    Harper's  Weekly,  August  10,  1889. 

Pavements  and  roads:  their  construction  and  maintenance.  By  E.  G.  Love.  New 
York,  1890. 

Road  materials  and  road-building  in  New  York.  By  F.  J.  H.  Merrill.  Bui.  N.  Y.  State 
Museum,  IV,  no.  17.  Albany,  1897. 

t  Rocks  suitable  for  road-making.    By  N.  S.  Shaler.    Stone,  1896,  XIII,  571-572. 


I  U«N-«^-t/Co 


330  ROAD    MATERIALS. 

Novaculite  and  jasper  gravels. 

Breaking  up  of  novaculite  by  joints. 

Accumulation  in  stream  channels. 

The  jasper  beds  of  California,  Wisconsin,  and  North  Carolina. 
Hardening  road-metal. 

Influence  of  iron,  illustrated  by  the  canga  of  Brazil,  and  the  iron- 
bearing  gravels  of  Paducah,  Ky. ;  influence  of  lime. 

Possibility  of  improving  poor  materials  with  iron. 

Distribution  of  materials. 

Modern  gravels  in  glaciated  areas. 

Modern  gravels  in  stream  channels;  dredged  at  Evansville. 
Sandy  shales  with  other  sedimentary  rocks. 
Chert  gravels,  Lower  Carboniferous  and  Silurian. 
Novaculite  follows  structural  features. 
Where  iron  may  be  had  for  hardening. 
Poor  iron  ores  available. 


332  SOILS. 


SOILS.* 

Residuary  soils. 

Decay  of  rocks  in  place. 

Varying  character  and  fertility  according  to  the  rock  matrix. 
Lake-  and  sea-bottom  soils  of  recent  date. 
The  Tertiary  and  Pleistocene  of  the  Gulf  States. 

Origin  of  these  sediments. 
The  lake  bottoms  of  Pleistocene  times. 

The  San  Joaquin  and  Santa  Clara  valleys. 
Adobes  from  three  sources : 

1.  Rocks  decayed  in  place. 

2.  Washed  down  from  such  decayed  beds. 

3.  Wind-blown.t 

Talus  soils. 

Talus  from  cliff  and  rock  slopes. 
Soil  by  decay  of  rock  -fragments. 

Alluvial  soils. 

Silts  deposited  by  water. 

Origin  of  the  alluvial  silts. 

Fertility  of  river  bottoms  due  partly  to  organic  matter  in  the  silts. 

Silting  up  of  deltas. 

Glacial  soils.* 

Origin  of  the  glacial  drift. 

Variety  and  mingling  of  its  ingredients. 

Glacio- a-lluvial  soils. 

Silts  draining  from  glaciers. 

Loess  deposits  in  water  and  by  wind. 

Loess  as  a  soil  in  the  Mississippi  valley. § 

*The  soils  of  Tennessee.    Bui.  Agr.  Expr.  Station  of  Tenn.,  Sept.  1897,  X,  no.  3.    Knox- 

ville,  1897. 

The  soil:  its  nature,  relations,  etc.    By  F.  H.  King.    New  York,  1895. 
The  origin  and  nature  of  soils.    By  N.  S.  Shaler.    Twelfth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey, 

1890-91,  pp.  213-345.    Washington,  1892. 
Rocks  and  soils :  their  origin,  composition,  and  characteristics.    By  H.  E.  Stockbridge. 

New  York,  1888. 
Composition,  mode  of  formation,  and  properties  of  soils.    By  E.  A.  Smith.    Geol.  Sur. 

of  Alabama  for  1881  and  1882.  pp.  1-154.    Montgomery,  1883. 
1 1.  C.  Russell  in  Geol.  Magazine,  1889,  pp.  289,  342. 
t  Soils  of  Illinois.     By  Frank  Leveritt.    Report  Illinois  Board  of  World's  Fair  Com. 

Springfield,  1895. 
I  Loess  of  North  America.    By  R.  E.  Call.    Amer.  Naturalist,  May,  1882,  XVI,  369-381, 

542-549.     (Bibliography  of  loess.) 


334  SOILS. 

Modification  of  soils. 

After  formation  soils  are  variously  modified   by  changes  of   temper- 
ature, by  rain,  plants,  and  animals. 
Leaching  action  of  acidulated  waters ;  "  buckshot  "  soil. 
Wind-blown  accumulations :  Colma,  China,  adobe  of  the  deserts. 
Accumulations  of  volcanic  ashes  that  decay  rapidly:  Bolivia;  Italy. 
Swamps,  marshes,  peat-bogs,  prairies.* 

The  work  of  burrowing  animals,  gophers,  squirrels,  ants,  and  earth- 
worms, t 

The  waste  of  soils  by  washing.} 
Alkali  soils. 

Origin  of  the  alkali. § 

*  Origin  of  prairies.  By  Leo  Lesquereux.  Econ.  Geol.  of  Illinois,  I,  178-190.  Spring- 
field, 1882. 

t  The  decomposition  of  rocks  in  Brazil.  By  J.  C.  Branner.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  America, 
1895-96,  VII,  295-303. 

Vegetable  mould  and  earthworms.    By  Charles  Darwin.    New  York,  1882. 

t  Washed  soils:  how  to  prevent  and  reclaim  them.  Farmers'  Bui.,  no.  20,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture.  Washington,  1894. 

The  economic  aspects  of  soil  erosion.  By  N.  S.  Shaler.  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, Oct.,  1896,  VII,  328-338. 

g  A  report  on  the  relations  of  soil  to  climate.  By  E.  W.  Hilgard.  Bui.  3,  Weather  Bu- 
reau, U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Washington,  1892. 

The  alkali  soils  of  the  Yellowstone  valley.  By  M.  Whitney  and  T.  H.  Means.  Bui.  14, 
Div.  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Washington,  1898. 


336 


WATER.* 

A  country's  water  supply  derived  (1)  directly  from  rain;  (2)  from 
lakes;  (3)  from  rivers;  (4)  from  springs;  (5)  from  wells,  (a)  ordinary 
wells,  (6)  artesian  wells. 

Effect  of  andesite  and  other  porous  rocks  on  water  supply. 

Topography  determines  largely  the  rainfall  of  a  region;  effect  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains  on  the  rainfall  of  California  and  the  Great  Basin. 

Effect  of  the  Andes  upon  the  rainfall  of  the  west  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica. 

Lakes:  size,  depth,  character,  distribution;  largely  controlled  by  geologic 

relations. 

Rivers:  location  and  character  fixed  by  geologic  structure  of  the  region. 
Effect  of  rapids  and  water-falls :  sources  of  water  power ;  detriment  to 

navigation. 
Utilization   of  muddy   water  after  filtering.     Effect  of   alum,  acids, 

alkalies,  heat  and  cold. 
Springs:  location,  character,  size,  determined  by  geologic  relations  of  the 

rocks. 

Springs  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  smallest  trickling  streams  to  those  of 
great  volume.     Mammoth 
Spring    of    Arkansas    dis- 
charges   9000   barrels    per 
minute. 
Underground  streams ;  traced  by 

the  use  of  fluoresceine.  Fi8-  138,-Seotion  to  illustrate  the  geo- 

.  .  logic  reason  for  a  spring 

Cities  and  towns  often  owe  their  upon  a  fault  line. 

locations  to  springs. 

All  spring  waters  contain  mineral  ingredients;   often  used  for  med- 
icinal purposes,  t 

Hard  water  of  limestone  regions. 

Soft  water  of  granite  and  sandstone  regions. 

Mineral  springs  as  health  and  pleasure  resorts. 

Spring  waters  vary  from  extremely  cold  to  boiling  hot. 

Hot  springs. 

Geysers. 

*  The  water  supply  of  England  and  Wales.    By  Charles  E.  De  Ranee.    London,  1882. 
Mineral  waters  of  Arkansas.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Arkansas  for  1891, 1.    Little 

Rock,  1892. 
Mineral  waters  of  Missouri.    Ann.  rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Missouri,  1890-92,  III.    Jefferson 

City,  1892. 
Water  supplies  and  inland  waters  of  Massachusetts.    Part  I,  rep.  on  water  supply  and 

sewerage,  1887-90.    By  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Boston,  1890. 
The  potable  waters  of  the  eastern  United  States.    By  W.  J.  McGee.    Fourteenth  ann. 

rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  5-47.    Washington,  1894. 
t  Natural  mineral  waters  of  the  United  States.    By  A.  C.  Peale.    Fourteenth  ann.  rep. 

U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  49-88.     Washington,  '1894. 


338 


i        ^-Silurian. 


Fig.  139. — Geological  map  of  the  region  about  Eureka  Springs,  Arkansas,  showing  the 
emergence  of  springs  at  a  constant  horizon. 


340 


WATER. 


Wells:  wells,  except  for  large  cities,  are  the  chief  source  of  water  supply 

for  domestic  purposes. 
Ordinary  wells,  especially  in  cities,  liable   to  surface  contamination 

and  cannot  furnish  great  volume. 

Why  some  wells  yield  soft  water  and  others  near  by  yield  hard  water. 
Why  water  is  not  always  found  at  the  same  level  in  the  glacial  drift 
regions. 


Hard  water 


Fig.  140. — Vertical  section  in  the  chalk  region  of   southwest  Arkansas,  showing  why 
the  waters  of  some  of  the  wells  are  hard  while  others  are  soft. 


Artesian  wells*  are  wells  (usually  deep)  that  flow  at  the  surface. 

Conditions  favorable  for  artesian  wells:  a  porous  stratum,  below  an 
impervious  stratum,  with  an  exposed  edge  higher  than  the 
mouth  of  the  well ;  no 
sufficient  outlet  lower 
than  the  mouth  of  the 
well;  sufficient  rainfall 
at  the  exposed  edge  of  ^^^=__^ 
the  water-bearing  bed  ^^z^^-  -">  --^  -  -•  /  -  - 

to    completely    saturate     Fi&-  141. -Section  to  illustrate  the  conditions 


controlling  artesian  waters. 
the    whole    bed.      The 

water-bearing  stratum  may  be  either  porous  or  fissured, 
less  disturbed  the  strata  the  better. 


The 


»The  underground  water  of  the  Arkansas  valley  in  eastern  Colorado.    By  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  557-601.    Washington,  1896. 
Preliminary  report  on  artesian  waters  of  a  portion  of  the  Dakotas.    By  N.  H.  Darton. 

Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  II,  603-694.    Washington,  1896. 
Report  on  water  supply.    By  C.  C.  Vermeule.    Geol.  Survey  of  New  Jersey,  vol.  III. 

Trenton,  1894. 
Well-boring  and  irrigation  in  east  South  Dakota.    By  N.  H.  Darton.    Eighteenth  ann. 

rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  IV,  561-615.      Washington,  1897. 
Artesian  wells  of  Iowa.    Bv  W.  H.  Norton.    Rep.  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  VI.  115-428.    Des 

Moines.  1897. 
The  requisite  and    qualifying    conditions   of    artesian  wells.    By  T.  C.  Chamberlin. 

Fifth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1883-84,  pp.  125-173.    Washington,  1885. 
On  the  occurrence  of  artesian  and  other  underground  waters  in  Texas,  eastern  New 

Mexico,  and  Indian  Territory,  west  of  the  97th  meridian.    By  R.  T.  Hill.    Senate 

Ex.  document  41. 


342  WATER. 

Uncertainties  in  boring  for  artesian  water  due  to  the  variations  in  the 
character  of  the  water-bearing  bed,  and  to  possible  faults. 

The  general  principles  are  simple,  but  the  problems  are  often  complex. 

Special  cases  require  special  study. 

Artesian  waters  seldom  obtained  from  crystalline  rocks,  but  some- 
times from  the  joints  in  them. 

Artesian  water  not  confined  to  rocks  of  any  particular  age.  In  Cali- 
fornia they  are  more  abundant  in  the  later  formations. 

Size  and  strength  of  flow  depends  upon : 

1.  Distance  of  discharge  from  outcrop. 

2.  Porosity  of  the  water-bearing  beds. 

3.  Character  of  the  confining  beds. 

4.  Character  of  the  country  between. 

5.  Height  of  the  outcrop  of  the  water  bed. 
Artesian  water  important  for : 

City  water  supplies. 
Irrigation. 

Limits  of  artesian  water  for  irrigation. 
Medicinal  purposes. 
Examples  of  artesian  well  regions. 

Impossibility  of  locating  water  and  minerals  by  the  use  of  the  divin- 
ing rod.* 

*  The  mechanical  action  of  the  divining  rod.    By  M.  E.  Wadsworth.    Amer.  Geologist, 

Jan.,  1898,  XXI,  72. 

The  divining  rod.    Nature,  Oct.  14,  1897,  LVI,  568-569. 
The  theory  of  water-finding  by  the  divining  rod.    By  B.  Tompkins.    Chippenham,  Wilts, 

1899.     Also  Nature,  Nov.  2,  1899,  LXI,  1-4. 
The  divining  rod.    By  R.  W.  Raymond.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1882-83,  XI,  411; 

and  Eng.  and  Min.  Jour.,  Feb.  26,  1898,  LXV,  256. 


344  REPORTS    ON    MINING    PROPERTIES. 


REPORTS  ON  MINING  PROPERTIES.* 

Mining  properties  are  usually  bought  and  sold  nowadays  upon  the 
reports  of  competent  geologists. 

Samples  cannot  be  depended  upon ;  and  even  when  samples  are  trust- 
worthy, the  value  of  the  property  is  not  always  determined  by  the  rich- 
ness of  the  ore  alone. 

Reports. 

Reports  should  be  accompanied  by  maps,  sections,  assays,  and  other 
information  relating  to  the  value  of  the  property,  such  as  roads 
and  transportation,  water  and  water-rights,  fuel,  timber,  labor, 
etc. 
Legal  status  of  the  property. 

Sampling. ^ 

The  object  of  the  sampling  of  ore-bodies  is  to  determine  the  nature 

and  extent  of  the  ores  and  the  value  of  the  property. 
Method  of  pits,  shafts,  and  wells. 

Wells  bored  with  core  drills;  with  churn  drills. 
Method  of  cross-cutting. 
Samples  to  be  collected  by  one's  self. 
Labelling. 

Locating  by  surveys  or  measurements. 
Care  of  the  samples  collected. 
Specimens  that  may  mislead. 

How  one  may  impose  upon  himself. 
Assaying. 

The  limits  of  an  assayer's  responsibility. 

In  sampling  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  guard  against  mine-salting. 
By  salting }  is  meant  the  fraudulent  tampering  with  the  materials  ex- 
amined for  the  purpose  of  misleading  the  person  making  the 
examination. 

*  The  responsibilities  of  the  mining  engineer.  By  J.  B.  Porter.  Journal  Fed.  Canadian 
Min.  Inst.,  1898,  II,  300-205. 

t  Testing  and  sampling  placer  deposits.  By  E.  B.  Kirby.  Eng.  and  Min.  Journal,  July 
29,  1899,  LXVIII,  130. 

Notes  on  the  exploration  of  mineral  properties.  By  H.  S.  Munroe.  School  of  Mines 
Quarterly,  Nov.,  1897,  XIX,  9-14. 

The  sampling  and  measurement  of  ore-bodies  in  mine  examinations.  By  E.  B.  Kirby. 
Thirteenth  ann.  rep.  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  679-700. 

Comstock  ore-sampling.  By  John  S.  McGillivray.  Thirteenth  ann.  rep.  State  Miner- 
alogist of  California,  701-705.  Sacramento,  1896. 

Sampling  ore-bodies.    Eng.  and  Min.  Journal,  Dec.  2,  1899,  LXVIII,  672. 

1  Mining  reports  and  mine  salting.  By  Walter  McDermott.  Engineering  Magazine, 
May,  1895,  IX,  311-318.  Trans.  Kansas  Acad.  Sci.,  1874  (reprint  of  1896),  106-111. 

Mine  salting.    By  O.  M.  Dobson.    The  Cosmopolitan,  April,  1898,  XXIV,  575-583. 

How  bubbles  are  inflated  and  pricked.  Eng.  and  Min.  Journal,  July  28,  1888;  same  re- 
printed Dec.  4,  1897,  p.  668. 


346  REFERENCES   TO    MINING    LAWS. 

It  is  liable  to  be  done : 

On  the  ground  before  samples  are  taken ; 

In  the  specimens  after  they  are  collected; 

In  the  assays. 
Danger  of  trusting  the  records  of  a  mine's  monthly  output. 


REFERENCES    TO   WORKS  ON  MINING  LAW. 

The  law  of  mines  and  mining  in  the  United  States.    By  D.  M.  Barringer  and  J.  S. 

Adams.    Boston,  1897. 
A  treatise  on  the  American  law  relating  to  mines  and  mineral  lands.    By  Curtis  H. 

Lindley.    2  vols.    San  Francisco,  1897. 

Mining  law.    By  E.  P.  Clark.    School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  1884,  V,  242-258. 
Historical  sketch  of  mining  law.    By  R.  W.  Raymond.    Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S., 

1883-84,  pp.  988-1004.    Washington,  1885. 
The  law  of  the  apex.    By  R.  W.  Raymond.    Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  1883-84,  XII, 

387-444,  677-688. 

Mining  laws.    Tenth  Census,  vol.  XIV.   Washington,  1885. 
Dissertation  upon  American  mining  law.    By  A.  H.  Ricketts.    Eleventh  ann.  rep.  of  the 

State  Mineralogist  [of  California],  1891-92,  pp.  521-574.    Sacramento,  1893. 
American  mining  code.    By  Henry  N.  Copp. 

The  law  of  mines  in  Canada.     By  W.  D.  McPherson  and  J.  M.  Clark.    Toronto,  1898. 
Minng  code  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  second  ed.    Mexico,  1893. 
Ley  minera  y  ley  de  imposto  &.  la  mineria  con  sus  respectivos  reglamentos.    Mexico, 

1894. 


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366 


INDEX. 


Abrasives,  264-272. 

Accretion,  36. 

Agate,  182. 
»Albertite,  224. 

Alkali,  334. 

Alteration,  48. 

Aluminum,  306. 

Amethyst,  180. 

Anthracite,  194. 

Antimony,  156-159,  260. 

Apatite,  320. 

Aqua-marine,  180. 

Arsenic,  164,  260. 
-  Artesian  waters,  340. 

Asbestos,  314. 

Asphalt,  224-228. 

Augite,  298. 

Auriferous  gravels,  138,  140 

Barium,  260. 
Barytes,{246. 
Bauxite,  304. 
Beryl,  180. 
Bismuth,  160. 
Bitumen,  224. 
Black  lead,  200. 
Borax,  238-240. 
Brecciation,  36. 
Building  stones,  290-298. 

Cadmium,  162,  260. 
Cairngorm,  180. 
Calcium,  260. 
Cameos,  182. 
Carbon,  174,  200. 
Carbonado,  174,  178. 
Carborundum,  266. 
Carnelian,  182. 
Cat's-eye,  180. 


Cavities,  rock,  24-30. 

Cement,  Portland,  284,  28<L/  3  &  0 

Cerium,  326. 

Chalcedony,  182. 

Chalk,  284. 

Chlorination,  124. 

Chromium,  70,  260,  316. 

Chrysotile,  314. 

Clay,  302. 

Coal,  184-198. 

Cobalt,  92-94,  260. 

Colemanite,  238. 

Concentration,  38. 

Conglomerates,  296.        .-* 

Copper,  78-87,260,    O^  ^ 

Corundum,  180,  264. 

Cryolite,  306. 

Culm,  196. 

Cyanide,  124. 

Diamonds,  174. 
Diamond  dust,  264. 
Diatomaceous  earth  (see  Tripoli), 

210,  266. 
Didymium,  326. 
Divining  rod,  342. 
Dolomite,  280. 
Dredging,  138. 

Economic  geologic  deposits,  18-22. 
Economic  geology,  general  works 

on,  iv. 

Electrolytic  process,  84. 
Emerald,  174,  180. 
Emery,  264. 

Faults,  28. 

Feldspar,  256. 

Fertilizers,  242-244,  320-324. 


367 


Fire-clay,  310-312. 
Fluorite,  258. 
Fluorspar,  258. 
Fractures,  26.  u  7 

?«V+»J~**',  * 

Galvanizing,  96. 
'Garnet,  180,  264-266. 
Gas,  natural,  218. 
Geologic  deposits,  18-22. 
Geological    column,   subdivisions, 

viii. 

Geological  surveys,  12. 
German  silver,  92. 
Gilsonite,  224. 
Glass-sand,  308. 
Glauconite  marls,  324. 
Gneiss,  298. 
Gold,  124-145. 
Gossan,  48. 

Government  surveys,  12. 
Grahamite,  224. 
Granite,  292. 
Graphite,  200-202,  316. 

paint,  260. 

Greensand  marls,  324. 
Grindstones,  270. 
Guano,  324. 
Gypsum,  260,  286-288,  324. 

Hardness  scale,  174. 
Hydraulic  mining,  138. 

Indicolite,  180. 
Infusorial  earth,  266. 
Iridium,  148. 
Iron,  52-68,  260. 
Iron  pyrites,  252-254. 

Jasper,  182. 
Kaolin,  300. 

Land  plaster,  324. 
Lanthanum,  326. 
Laws,  mining,  346.  _ 

Lead, 106-111,  260,      8  6   3 


Lime,  282,  316. 
Limestones,  294. 

hydraulic,  282-284. 

lithographic,  280. 

other  than  marbles,  278. 
Long-wall  mining,  196. 

Magnesite,  312-314. 
Magnesium,  260. 
Manganese,  72-76,  262. 
Maps  and  sections,  6-10. 
Marls,  324. 
Marble,  274-276. 
Mercury,  166-172. 
Mica,  318. 
Millstones,  270-272. 
Mineral  phosphates,  320. 

pigments,  260-262. 

statistics,  titles,  iv. 
Mining  laws,  346. 
Mining  properties,  reports  on,  344- 

346. 

Molybdenum,  154. 
Monazite,  326. 
Moonstone,  256. 

Naphtha,  204. 

Natural  fertilizers,  320-324. 

Natural  gas,  204,  218-220. 

Nickel,  92-94. 

Niter,  242. 

Novaculite,  268. 

Oil.  204. 

Oilstone,  268. 

Onyx,  182. 

"  Onyx  "  marble,  274. 

Oolitic  limestone,  278. 

Opal,  182. 

Ore-bodies,  formation  of,  32-40. 

Ore  deposits,  features  of,  42-50. 

Oriental  cat's-eyes,  180. 

Osmium,  148. 

Ozokerite,  222. 

Paint,  260-262, 


368 


Palladium,  150. 
Pearls,  182. 
Peat,  196. 
Periodicals,  vif 
Petroleum,  204-216. 
Phosphates,  320. 
Phosphorite,  320. 
Pig  iron,  69. 
Pigments,  260-262. 
Placer,  126. 
Plaster,  324. 
Platinum,  146-148. 
Plumbago,  200-202. 
Porosity,  206. 
Portland  cement,  284,  286. 
Potassium,  262. 
Precious  stones,  174. 
Pressure,  rock,  208. 
Priceite,  238. 
Pumice,  266. 
Pyrite,  252-254. 
Pyrope,  180. 

Quartz,  180. 
Quicksilver,  166-172. 


Refractoriness,  312. 
Refractory  materials,  310. 
Replacement,  36. 
Reports    on    mining    properties, 

344_346. 

Road  materials,  328-330. 
Rock  cavities,  24-30. 
Rock  phosphates,  320-324. 
Rock  pressure,  208. 
Rubellite,  180. 
Ruby,  174,  180. 

Saddle  reefs,  130,  132. 
Salt,  230-234. 
Salting,  344. 
Saltpeter,  242. 
Sampling,  344. 


Sand,  266. 

Sandstones,  294-296. 

Sapphire,  180. 

Schists,  298. 

Sections,  maps  and,  6-10. 

Serpentine,  298. 

Silica,  316. 

Silver,  112-123. 

Slate,  296. 

Soda,  236. 

Soda  niter,  244. 

Soils,  332-334. 

Springs,  336. 

Stadia,  6. 

Surveys,  geological,  12. 

Sulphur,  248-250. 

Syenite,  298. 

Talc,  314-316. 
Thoria,  326. 
Tin,  88-91,  262. 
Topaz,  180. 
Tourmaline,  180. 
Tripoli,  266. 
Tuff,  296. 
Tungsten,  152. 
Turquois,  180. 
Type-metal,  156. 

Uintaite,  224. 
Ultramarine,  262. 

Vanadium,  262. 
Veins,  34. 

Waste  coal,  194. 
Water,  336-342. 
Wells,  artesian,  340. 
Whetstones,  266. 
Whiting,  262. 

Zinc,  96-105,  262. 


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